Argumentation议论文特点|江阴雨辰互联

2023年6月24日发(作者：)

Argumentation

Aims：

1． Knowing to define the term,

2． Comparing this style of writing with exposition, description, and narration

3． Knowing requirements of a GOOD argumentative essay

4． Knowing how to outline an augmentative essay: three parts.

Procedure: （theory-practice）

The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of argumentation, on the

other hand, is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and

explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the

reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his

mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes.

Speeches on policies, editorials of newspapers, articles on political or theoretical

questions, and various proposals are often argumentative.

Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing ---

description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition

are very closely related --- argumentation is actually exposition with the

additional purpose of convincing or persuading.

Although they can take different shapes, argumentative essays have certain basic

features in common. If you wish to write a good argumentative essay, you should do

your best to meet the following requirements:

(1) A debatable point

It is imperative that the paper should have a debatable point, that is, something

which can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to dispute.

Generally speaking, the following are not good themes.

1) Mere statements of facts

“Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations”

is a fact that cannot be debated. But if it is changed into “acupuncture anesthesia

should replace conventional anesthesia in all operations”, it becomes debatable.

2) Statements of personal preference “Ba Jin is my favorite author” expresses personal preference which does not

lead to dispute. But a statement like “Ba Jin is the greatest Chinese writer of

the 20 century” is disputable and sufficient evidence should be provided.

3) Viewpoints that are generally accepted or can be easily verified

It is universally known that “noise pollution is harmful to people’s health”,

but it is not generally accepted that “noise pollution is the most harmful of all

environmental pollution”. The former viewpoint can be proved, but the later is

arguable.

(2) Sufficient evidence

Since the point of your paper is not a fact, a statement of personal taste, or

a viewpoint universally accepted, you will have to provide sufficient evidence to

convince the reader. Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific

examples; hard, not soft, evidence, or facts, not opinions, unless the opinions

are expert and authoritative; statistics; and quotations from authorities. Valid

evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.

(3) Good logic

It is obvious that good logic is even more important to argumentation than to

any other types of writing. All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence

should be logically connected with the conclusion and with each other. Any fallacy

in logic or wrong step in reasoning would leave the reader in doubt about the whole

argument.

There are generally two ways of reasoning:

1) Inductive reasoning (from specific facts to a general conclusion)

Inductive reasoning is the more common way. When you use induction, you start

with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move

from specific examples to a general statement.

2) Deductive reasoning (from a general statement to a specific conclusion)

The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning --- it moves from a

general statement to a specific conclusion. It works on the model of syllogism ---

a three-part argument in which there are two statements, known as the major premise

thand the minor premise, and a conclusion.

Here is an example of a syllogism:

A. All human beings make mistakes. (a general statement)

B. X is a human being.

C. Therefore, X makes mistakes. (a specific conclusion)

From the above example we can see that the major premise must be an accepted

generalization, and the minor, a factual example of that generalization. If A and

B are true, C, the conclusion, is bound to be true.

You must be very careful about your premises, especially your major premise,

such statements as “all students love to study” and “women are more imaginative

than men” are not generally accepted, and therefore cannot be used as major

premises.

(4) Clear logic

A typical argumentative essay consists of three parts: an introduction which

identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such a discussion;

a body which presents the evidence; and a conclusion in which the proposition, if

it is stated at the beginning, is reaffirmed.

In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs

to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your

own views. Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important

to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arranged

A. from the least important to the most important,

B. from the most familiar to the least familiar, and

C. from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult.

(5) Good use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration,

and especially the various methods of exposition

(6) An honest and friendly attitude

To argue is not to quarrel or fight. The force of an argument does not come from

abuse, sarcasm, exaggeration, or fierce attack, but from solid evidence, logical

reasoning, and careful analysis. A domineering or hostile tone could only raise doubts about your good faith and impair the credibility of your argument, whereas

an honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers.

Take care that you neither overstate or understate, and avoid overuse of such

words and phrases as “perhaps”, “maybe”, “sometimes”, “more often”,

“nearly always”, “I think”, or “in my opinion”, which invariably weaken the

force of your argument.

Models

The

Harmful Effects of the Multiple-Choice Test

The multiple-choice test is a common examination form that is widely used as

a standard international testing method in various academic fields, especially in

language testing. Some educators and teachers embrace it as a most scientific test

form for its objectivity, accuracy and high efficiency of grading test papers.

However, after many years of application, investigation and research, other teachers

and educators have admitted that to judge students’ real and practical abilities,

such testing method has many limitations and drawbacks. In my opinion, for all its

efficiency, objectivity and validity, the multiple-choice test should not be widely

used for the examinations of academic courses on campus.

Those who argue for the advantages of the multiple-choice test believe that such

tests can greatly improve the accuracy and speed of test paper grading. The

standardized answer sheets of such test make it possible for computers to replace

men to grade the papers. Undoubtedly, the computerization of test paper grading not

only improve the speed of grading test papers, but also eliminates the subjective

factors of bias or preference that can not be totally avoided by those who grade

them. Here, computers or electronic devices are considered as the norm for scientific

testing method. It may be safe to check manufactured products by electronic devices

for their qualities. Yet, to check the real abilities and potentials of complex human

beings, such devices and such testing method are far from enough. In fact, many problems from such testing do exist.

First of all, it is convenient for students to cheat in the multiple-choice test.

The standardization of answer sheets makes it easier for students to plagiarize

others’ answers. The choices of A. B. C. D. are most clearly printed on the answer

sheets or test papers. With only a quick glance, any student who attempts to cheat

in the exam can surely steal the correct choice from whoever is nearby and whoever

is considered as a good student. What’s more, some students may have some secret

deal among themselves in the exam, delivering generous service to the needed. In

this case, even when they are separated from each other with considerable distance

by the proctor/invigilator, they can still succeed. The proctor may feel quite

helpless because even though they sometimes see or feel students cheating, they

cannot pinpoint or prove how the students are cheating in the exam. This in a way

encourages the students’ misconduct and leads to their ethical degradation.

Secondly, the multiple-choice test is often like a gambling. Doing well in such

an exam is in some way becoming a matter of chance. According to the law of

probability, if a question has four choices, then the probability of the right answer

will be as high as 25%. Even is a person, absolutely ignorant of knowledge of that

subject, take part in the multiple-choice test, he will have 25% chances of getting

the right answer, just by guess. Because of this characteristic, some students’

attitude and attention to study may be quite misled and their capability and

flexibility may be weakened. For example, we used to answer the multiple-choice tests

at middle schools. When we come to college and face a problem of answering various

questions in more details by writing or by speaking, we are at a loss, not to mention

our difficulty in writing English compositions.

Thirdly, the multiple-choice test fails to evaluate the students’ abilities

thoroughly, especially their potential abilities. Owing to the nature of such a test

form, the four letters on the answer sheet cannot reveal the thought process of the

students who take the exams. We all know that thought process is the reflection of

one’s abilities and potentials in many different ways, and that process is often

much more important than the test results themselves in telling the real abilities of the students. Therefore, the answers chosen on the answer sheet do not truly

correspond to the students’ practical abilities.

Fourthly, such a method of testing can seriously affect the students’ way of

studying. Since the multiple-choice test demands no writing, students tend to

develop a very passive way of receiving knowledge and responding to the questions

related to the knowledge, and therefore neglect the abilities of actively and

creatively using what they have learned. This is especially harmful for language

study that requires constant actual practice. It may lower the students’ interest

and intelligence in their studies and lead to the failure of our educational purposes.

After all, how can we meet the complex challenge of modern society with simple “A.

B. C. D.” ?

From the above cases of evidence and analysis, it is clear that the

multiple-choice test should not dominate the examinations of our academic courses.

It may be used partially for some specific purposes for some courses, but extensive

use of the multiple-choice test at various levels of our educational institutions

will surely impoverish the quality of our education and of our students.

Is English Writing Necessary for English Majors?

English writing is generally the most difficult one in the language competence

required for the students majoring in English, considering the great pains student

writers take and the slight progress they make in their practice. Most of the

beginners think there is no need to practice writing English compositions since their

writing skills in Chinese are quite sufficient, and English writing is after all

not quite practical for their future work. However, English writing, as a very

important part of students’ general language competence and as a means of expressing

oneself and of spreading knowledge and information,

necessary

and essential for

English majors.1) The

difficulty of

English

writing

baffles

(=confuses)

some students

so much that

they turn to

their Chinese

skills for help.

That is natural. In fact, their Chinese writing skills do

help their English writing, especially in generating and

organizing ideas and details. Meanwhile, Chinese writing is

different from English writing in sentence structure and

paragraph organizations and their differences in

expressions are certainly even bigger. Simply translating

Chinese word for word into English cannot make good English

writing. Other students hold a wrong view of English

learning. They think to learn English is just to memorize

a large vocabulary, to master the grammar and to speak fluent

English. Once they are proficient in those areas of English,

they can naturally handle English writing well. To correct

such a one-sided view, one thing must be kept in mind, that

is, spoken English is not equal to written English. Oral

speech is often rather loose and flexible without precise

and proper arrangement. Oral English uses simple everyday

language while written English comprises complicated words

and sentence structures. Therefore, written English is more

demanding, and it requires intentional and intensive

practice. English writing course can serve this purpose.

The students’ laziness in

observing and

thinking partly

accounts for their

reluctance to

practice writing.

Writing

sharpens and improves thinking. English writing can help students develop the habit

and ability of thinking in English and become generally more competent in English.

Composition topics can be varied yet close to life. If students have a good habit

of observing life and thinking constantly, they won’t bump into (=accidentally meet)

topics with empty heads. Keen observation and deep thoughts are necessary for good

English writing, and they are also signs for well-educated people.

Writing can also

strengthen students’ abilities

in comprehension and

oral English.

Writing is creative work.

After brainstorming, various ideas and pictures may pop into their minds and some

beautiful sentences may be written down on a piece of paper, which will last long

in their memory. Their written English skills may help to polish and beautify their

spoken English and make their oral expression precise and elegant. Writing involves

lots of reading. When reading others’ writing, they will be sensitive to various

styles and that will quicken their reading speed and comprehension.

Furthermore,

English writing is in

fact a most practical

tool in students’

future career. It will be used in writing

telexes, business letters, research papers and public speeches. Every kind of

writing has its special style, which needs a careful study and strenuous practice. yet all those are based on essential skills in English writing that will be covered

in an English writing course.

Finally, the

required competence

for English majors

differs from other

English learners.

English

majors are not limited to the command of any particular sphere of the English language,

but they must have all-round competence in terms of listening and reading

comprehension, spoken abilities and writing skills in English, so that they can adopt

themselves to various situations in their future work.

No one is born