2024年1月6日发(作者：)

tion 分类：

onomatopoeic motivation拟声理据, morphological motivation 形态理据 , semantic motivation语义理据,

etymological motivation 词源理据.

2. Types of meaning:

grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~,

collocative ~,)

Associative meaning : 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the

conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and

indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion,

geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types :

connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.

3. Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more

senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived

its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.

4. 同形同音异义关系 Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from

another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the

other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs

(same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both

in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/

(v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and

meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the

words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person;

deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.

5. 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别

Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This

creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and

polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same

form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One

important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a

polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of

development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a

polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g.

neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with

one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas

homonyms are listed as separate entries.

6. 同义关系

Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but

different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from

borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with

idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their

denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are

identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the

same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.

Sources of Synonyms

1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4)

Coincidence with idiomatic expressions

如何区分同义词？

1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application

7. What are the characteristics of antonyms?

1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one

meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms

are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.

8. 上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning

of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to

some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in

terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their

status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig

are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself

becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes

9. 词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation,

elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in

meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and

psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).

10. 词义的扩大 Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover

a broader or less

词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升格Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a

neutral and/or appreciative sense；

词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；

11. 词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different

but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus,

which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and

the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other

kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.

12. 语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts: linguistic

context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those

situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either

contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or

Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical

context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context

we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.

13. 语境的作用：Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents,

provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2)

explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word

structure

14. 英语习语的特点The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability.

英语习语的分类According to the criterion of their grammatical functions, we classify them into idioms

nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and

sentence idioms. The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and literary

expressions.

英语习语的使用The use of idioms involves their stylistic features, rhetorical features , and variations of

idioms.

英语习语的修辞色彩The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation

( alliteration 头韵法and rhyme叠韵) , lexical manipulation ( reiteration复用, repetition重复and

juxtaposition反义词叠用), figures of speech ( simile明喻, metaphor暗喻, metonymy转喻, synecdoche借代, personification拟人, euphemism委婉)

15. Metonymy 和Synecdoche ,修饰有何区别? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of

names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely

associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.

二.

串讲内容

第一章

logy 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings

of words.

2. Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:

1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography

3.研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？

Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization

is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1) A word is a minimal free form of a

language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in

a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释

5.词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词

1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g.

Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和 –ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和 mail

is the relationship between sound and meaning?

1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and dog. Cat

2)The relationship between them is conventional.

3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.

is relationship between sound and form?

1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written

form should agree with the oral form, such as English language.

2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest Old English

3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.

are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between

sound and form?

1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does

not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double

duty or work together in combination.

2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and

in some cases the two have drawn far apart.

3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.

4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.

要记住以上四句话中的关键词：

1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing

9.你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr),

kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。

is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can

stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a

given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.

is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics?

Three criteria :1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin

By use of frequency 可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary

By notion 可划分为：1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional

words . (Content words 的别称)Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words.

(Functional words 的别称)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability

are the characteristics of basic word stock?

1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability

要把握住‘All national character’词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通词

constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content or functional words ?

Answer : Content words

What is native words? Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and

borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes:

the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know as Anglo-Saxon words. (3) Words of Anglo-Saxon

origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of

the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language

14.什么叫borrowed words? Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as

borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings

constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts .In any

dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.

第二章：

The Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put

it5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities

in their basic word stock and grammar .

1.‘Indo-European’ 两大分支：n set n set

Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian

Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.

In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh,

Breton The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Rumanian all

belong to the Italic.

The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish

and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German,

Dutch ,Flemish and English. With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English

language. It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern

English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected

language just like modern German.

2. Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England

古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)Sound and form

真正达到统一是在什么时期？.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period ,modern period.

现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance

3. Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？

The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization)The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from

(Colonization )The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic

language

main sources of new words :

1)The rapid development of modern science and technology

2)Social, economic and political changes;3)The influence of other cultures and language

5. Modes of Vocabulary Development 1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing2)Semantic

change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ）Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer 外来词可以被称作borrowed words , 因此borrowed words are also known as loaned words .恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English

vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially true of American English.

6. 英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？

答案：Modern English period

7.在英语发展过程 在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？French, Latin, English in Middle English period

English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面?

答案：Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.

9.文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响?答案：Greek , Roman culture

10.某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?答案：Modern English

第三章

smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes)

minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)

mes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes. In other words,

the morphemes is the smallest functioning unit in composition of words

rphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs, morpheme of plurality {-s}

has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches It can be realized

by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in

deer-deer, fish-fish

5. what are the types of morphemes ?

答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes 。

Free morphemes : 1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to

be free.2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free

grammatical units in sentences. 3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a

single free rootwords ,as each of them consists of a single free root 4) free morphemes are free roots.

bound morphemes: 1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.. 2) They are

bound to other morphemes to form words. 3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and

affix affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the

end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional

morphemes. Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to

create now words.2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.

root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word

3) a ’root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been

removed

stem : 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a

compound like handcuff.

2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate.

3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.

第四章:

1. 在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?

答案：有七种:1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7)

blending有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion

2. 由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?答案：Extension

3. 由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式?答案：Narrowing

4. Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？答案：Affixation is also known as derivation Affixation falls

into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation 要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:a-, non, ir :

negative prefixes de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes ) mal-, pseudo-, mis- :

pejorative prefixes super , sur-, extra ： prefixes of degree or size anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- :

prefixes of orientation and attitude trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes fore-, post- : prefixes of time

and order bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixes suffixation : 1.

Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness, 4) Noun and

adjective suffixes注意Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping 的名词解释.

5. 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open

6. what are the characteristics of compounds ?What are the difference between compounds

and free phrases ?答案：1) phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatical features 最常见的三种词性 : 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds

7. 在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性? 在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性? 动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的? 名词解释:Conversion Conversion is the formation of new words by

converting words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion

8. 形容词转为动词分为哪两类？答案：由Adjective to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive

9. ‘blending’ 分为哪四类合成词？1. head + tail 2. head + head 3. head + word 4. word + tail

绝大多数blending 都是什么词性?答案：nouns，The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns; very

few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer.

10. 截短法clipping 分为哪四类？答案：There are four common types of clipping :1) Front clipping2) Back

clipping3) Front and back clipping4) Phrase clipping要注意clipping 的例子有一个特殊变化：fridge

( refrigerator 截短之后在i, g 中间加一个d ) , 还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola)

11. 什么是acronymy？Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of ne

ames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g. BBC, VOA, TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g. CORE, TEFL Words

from proper names 有四大类:1. Names of bobby : Names of people2. Names of places

e.g. champagne, rugby 3. Names of utopia 4. cabal

12. 以下的词采用哪种构词法？ e.g. diagnosis ---?diagnose : (先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词,这种构词被称作) backformation bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法): 属于Words from proper names 中的Names

of people VJ-day :(这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms 中的Acronyms Pop: (采用哪一种构词法构成的) : clipping Sitcom : blending FORTRAN : head + head Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词) Bath 和

bathe 存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion )重点句：Conversion is also known as functional shift.

13. Noun + v-ing, 这类词构成的词是什么词 ？答案：compounding

14. Record-breaking , 它是属于复合法中的哪一种？答案：Adjectives compounds

15. 请说出Adjectives compounds 中多产性强的有几类？答有三类1) n + v-ing 2) n + a3) n + v-ed

16. up-bringing 是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？答案：noun compounds (adv + v-ing )

17. 复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么?答案：区别也就是复合词的特点:1) Phonetic features2) Semantic

features3) Grammatical features

18. red meat, green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词?答案 ：Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义）

19. Compounding又被称作什么法？答案：composition

20. 由compounding 或composition 构成的词被称作什么？答案：compounds

21. 复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？答案：分为三类：solid, hyphenated, opensolid : blackmail ,

blackmarkethyphenated: brother-in-law, open : green horn , green hand

22. 当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs答案：有三类：1) Both transitive and intransitive 2) Only

transitive 3) Only intransitive

23. 由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性?答案：verb to catch

24. 形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别?答案：分为两类：1) full black , white 2) partial

the rich , the poor

25. 名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？答案：1) Concrete 2) host : （可加-ess 变成具体名词）friend : (加-ship 可变成抽象名词)

26. A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false )答案：true ( 可从word 的四个特点看出）

27. 判断对错：1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther . (true or false )答案：true 2． The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly arbitrary and

conventional.(答案：true 3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different

antonyms .(true or false)答案：true 4. an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes.

(true or false )答题： false A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one

antonym. E.g. fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）

28.

1) Chinese is our native language, but we can not say the Chinese is our ?

.a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language

答案：C）mother language ( 不存在的一种说法)

2)以下的哪一个词 is not an expression used by American?

A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress

答案：tube ( 只有英国人把地铁叫tube , 美国人把它叫作subway, underground )

3)‘smog’它是‘smoke , fog’ 合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？ A)

clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation 答案： C ) blending

4)以下的词哪些属于：A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) goldmine

(compound word )bike ( shortened form )process (derived word : cess 是一个不可分割的bound root，pro 它是一个前缀)supermarket ( derived word )language ( simple word )driver ( derived word )dorm

( shortened form, clipping )modernize ( derivation )blackboard ( compound )bus ( shortened form )

(omnibus )

第五章：Word Meaning

1. The meanings of ‘Meaning’ 指的是哪三个层次的内容?意义中的含义的三个层次的划分: What are the

meanings of ‘Meaning’?1) Reference (有reference 的词必然具有sense, 也必然具有Concept ) 2)

Concept( 能够形成Concept 的词必然有reference ) 3) Sense (有sense 的词未必具有concept , 也未必具有reference) (Conjunction , prepositions, adverbs, 它们都是具有sense 的词,但是未必具有reference , 也未必具有concept, 例如：if, but, probably : 它们有sense, 但没有concept )

2. What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?（等同于：What is

relationship between sound and form ）答: Arbitrary and conventional

3. Concept : 1. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical .They are both related

directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.2. Concept, which

is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind .

3. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on. 4. a concept can

have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.

4. Sense: 1. ‘ sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language. ‘ The sense of an expression is its

place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’ 2. Since the

sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an

abstraction. *3. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)

5. What are the type of motivation？ 1) Onomatopoeic motivation 2) Morphological Motivation 3)

Semantic Motivation 4) Etymological Motivation。

6. some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes, it will become another new word, either

new in meaning or new in sense, this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )

7. Compounds are totally different in the meaning before it was carried out with different elements, so

the meaning of a compound can not be deduced from component constituted this compound ,this

motivation is called ( morphological motivation )

8. pen in old English , refers to the feather, but with the development of technology, fountain was

invented , but the name of this material was kept up to this day, people still used the pen to refer to

writting tool, this motivation is called (etymological motivation)

9. Conceptual meaning also know as (denotative meaning )

10. laconic answer (简短回答), laconic 的形成是属于哪一种理据 (etymological motivation)

11. pingpong ball , cuckoo 是靠哪一种理据形成的新词?答案: Onomatopoeic Motivation

12. 问题:at the foot of mountain, the mouth of river, 此时采用了哪一种理据构成?答案: Semantic

13. movtivation 论述题: 1. What are the types of motivation? 2. What are the types of meaning? 按大的分支来分分为: (1)grammatical meaning (2)Lexical meaning

14. 分析题:*’The dog is chasing a cat’, analyze the sentence based on grammatical meaning. Lexical

meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(语法意义上分析没考过, 但从词汇意义上分析考过)语法意义指一个词的词性, 句中充当的成份, 句子的时态,单复数形式等.1)’Dog, cat’ are nouns, and ’chase’ is transitive verb.2) The sentence is used in present

continuous tense.3) ’The dog, a cat’ are singular form.

15. 问题:The pen is mightier than sword? 请从语法意义的角度上分析这句话?Both ’pen and sword’ are

nouns. ’mightier’ is an adjective, and ’than’ is sentence is in simple present tense.这是现在时中采用的哪一种语法结构?’Mightier than’ is comparative degree.’pen and sword’ are in

singular form.’The pen’ is subject, and ’sword’ functions as an object to preposition ’than’.’mightier’

is predictive

16. 重点名词解释: Conceptual meaning:1) Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is

the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 2) Being constant and

relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communiation as the same word has the

same conceptual meaing to all the speakers of the same language

17. Associative meaning :(一定要把它的四种分支答上)1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning

supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is

open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience,

religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises

four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.

18. 问题: Connotative meaning is not the same to everybody, every situation and every time,

analyze the statement?答案: e.g. A child is prejudiced against, often jeered at, beaten or scolded

at home, then home to his is nothing but ’ a hell’, hence unfavourable connotatitions,

19. 问题: 某些贬义词是不是任何时候都是贬义词？答案：e.g. A phrase like ’son of a *****’ which normally

has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity may convey the connotation of ’friendliness’

and ’intimacy’ used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time.

20. 问题:Stylistic meaning 根据字典上的划分有几种划分?根据The Five Clocks 划分,有几种划分?答案:In some

dictionaries, stylistic features are clearly marked as ’formal’, ’informal’, ’literary’, ’archaic’, slang’.

Martin Joos in his book The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of

formality: ’frozen’, ’formal’, ’consultative’, ’casual’ and ’intimate’.

21. 问题:在日常生活中,人们把文体只简单地划分为哪三类?答案:1)formal 2)neutral 3) informal注意:要把书中89页中例子[22][23]分析要记好.在情感意义affective meaning, 考试往往要落脚在affective meaning

的两个分类:(年年affective meaning 例子都考) (1) appreciative meaning (2) pejorative meaning

Collocative meaning 中的例子要记好: pretty , handsome Green 搭配的例子记好: green on the job,

green fruit , green with envy , green-eyed monster.

22. 问题: Blackmail 从发音的角度被划分成什么词,从理据的角度被划分成什么词?答案:Complex Morphological

motivation

23. 问题: 有 reference 的词必然具有sense and concept ( 正确) 有sense 的词一定具有reference.(错误)

The word which have meaning does not have necessarily reference.

24. 问题: ’Forget, forgot, forgetting , forgotten , forgets’这是从哪一个角度来界定这个词的分支?答案:

Grammatical meaning

25. 问题: ‘frozen, ‘formal’ , ‘consultative’, ‘casual’ and ‘intimate’ 这五个词是总结了什么的划分， 是根据什么的划分?答案: stylistic meaning , 是根据The Five Clocks written by Martin Joos.

26. 问题:But in daily life , we always refer to (formal), (neutral) , (informal).

27. 问题: ’Pretty boy, pretty woman , pretty garden, pretty garden , pretty car’，请解释这些词的意义一样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？答案:Collocative meaning, when pretty is used to modify different

nouns both animate and inanimate , their collocative meaning are totally different.

28. 问题：Table tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the name of the bird is also called cuckoo ,

which can also be reused to refer to the sound of the bird , so their two words are (onomatopoeically)

motivated.

29. 问题：’Unexpected, expectation, expecting’, these three words are (morphologically) motivated.

30. 问题： ’Hopeless, jobless, dislike’, 这三个词是靠什么motivated. ( morphologically motivated)

31. 问题：’East or west , home is best’ and ’there is no place like home’. 这两话是使用了什么样的意义构成的？答案: Connotative meaning

第六章: Sense Relations and Semantic Field polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and

hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）

1. Two Approaches to Polysemy: 1) Diachronic approach2) Sychronic approach

2. Two Processes of Development

1) radiation (1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and

the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (2) the meaning are independent

of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning. e.g. face, neck

2) concatenation (1) meaning ‘ linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word

moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in may cases ,there is not a sign of

connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning .

(2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until

in the end the original meaning is totally lost. e.g. treacle

3：In the linguistic study, what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations ?答案:

A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense, so it is called sense semantic

relations. types of sense relations : polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）

4. 问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象， 那么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。比如说：dead , alive , 它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？

答案：Contradictory terms它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy

5. 问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？

答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do

6.

not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.

问题：反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？答案：表明two poles, two extremes，的反义词，它们之间存在一种包容现象，这种包容现象被称作（Middle ground） e.g. huge / tiny（ 它们之间存在着big , small , quite big,

quite small）e.g. young / old这类反义词被称为(Contrary terms)

问题：fast 这个词, 它表示紧的概念时, 它 和loose 是一组反义词，表示快的概念 时，它和slow 是一组反义词， 这样的 一种语义关系算什么样的语义关系？答案： polysemy

问题：分析deer , dear 这两个词是什么样的词？答案：Homophone

重点: homonyms 有哪三个类别的划分？ 1) perfect bank , bear2)

7.

8.

9.

bow, sow 3) homophones e.g dear, deer right, write, rite

10. 重点：Origins of Homonyms 1) Change in sound and spelling 2) Borrowing3) Shortening

11. 问题：shortening 可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上? 1) Acronymy 2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4) Idioms

重点问题：Homonymy 和 Polysemy 的区别？

12. Rhetoric Features of Long time no sea. ( puns ) humor, sarcasm or ridicule 重点：名词解释 Synonyms Types of Synonyms :1) Absolute synonyms 2) Relative synonyms

13. 重要简答题：Sources of Synonyms ( 四大来源， 配以例子说明就可以了) 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and

regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic

expressions

14. 重点：如何区分同义词？(Discrimination of Synonyms ) 1) Difference in denotation2) Difference in

connotation 3) Difference in application antonymy :

15. 反义关系要点:反义词的三种类别的划分: What are the different types of antonyms? 三种类别的名词解释都要记: 1) Contradictory terms exclusive 特例: they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do

not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem. e.g. single/ married (有可能放在分析里去论述)

2) contrary terms 关键词: two poles or extremes middle rich / poor (中间还可出现well-to-do)3) Relative parent / child , predecessor/ successor

16. 问题: What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic

opposition 特例:Many words, though having synonyms, do not find their semantic opposites, e.g.

read, hit, house, book, power, magazine. Therefore, in a language, there are a great many more

synonyms than antonyms. 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one

antonym. (这个特点只适用于polysemous )e.g. fast , dull 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.(这里讲的包容性是指一个反义词必然包 含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念) / woman (man 除了指男性,还可以指整个人类, woman 算作人类的一 部分, 所以woman 也算在man 的范畴内,因此,woman 被man

所包容) dog / ***** ( dog 除了指狗类通称,还可以指公狗, *****是母狗, dog指狗类通称的时,*****是狗的一种,因此我们说*****必然被dog所包容,所以,它们之间存在着Semantic inclusion) (语义上的包容性还没有考过) e.g. tall/short, old /young 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of

intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(特例)Some words can have two different

types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite,(未考过, 重要的选择或填空内容) e.g. happy / unhappy/ sad ( happy/ unhappy 之间的反义关系是negative, happy/sad

之间的关系是opposite )The use of Antonyms (通常用在习语当中) e.g. rain or sine high and loweasy

come, easy go

17. 名词解释:Hyponymy: 1) hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. 2)That is to say,

the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. 3) These

specific words are known as hyponyms. The general words are the superordinate terms and the

more specific ones are subordinate terms. 注意:hyponyms 和 subordinate 都是指下义词. 比如说:考试给你hammer, saw, spanner这些词, 然后再给你tool这个词, 然后让你用语义关系的理论加以分析这组词?分析: hammer, saw , spanner 都是specific word, 它们和tool 存在的关系是semantic inclusion , 所以too是一个superordinate , hammer, saw, spanner 属于subordinate 或者是hyponyms. (用上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题,也是一个考试的要点) hyponymy ( 它与语义场semantic field具有一定的联系)注意:

上义词与下义词不是一成不变的, 也不是绝对的, 是一个相对的概念,不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系.

18. 重点:Semantic Field 1)The massive word store a language like English can be conceived of as

composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, and others smaller. Viewing the total

meaning in this way is the basis of field theory. 2) The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as ‘an

integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense. Therefore, the ‘words of languages can be

classified into semantically related sets or fields. 3) According to Trier’s vision of fields, the whole

vocabulary can be divided up into fields. 4)Words in each field are semantically related and define

one another.注意:答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同.

19. 问题:在反义关系中, 同一个词具有不同的涵义, 因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词 ( 问题: 反义词分为哪三

类:1) Contradictory terms 2) Contrary terms 3) Relative terms

20. 问题:可以用形容词比较级, 可以用程度副词 加以修饰的反义词是属于哪一类?答案: Contradictory terms

21. 问题: 可以接纳一个Middle ground, 这样的词是属于哪一类反义词?答案:contrary terms

22. 问题: Husband and wife , man and woman 这都是表示性别的反义词,但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分, 对还是错?答: 错 husband and wife : relative terms man and woman : contradictory terms

23. 问题: 反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念semantic inclusion, 请举例说明?答案: e.g. man / woman , dog/

***** tall/ short, old /young 问题:Face 具有不同的它有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived

meanings ,那么,这种基本语义和派生语义体现在face的身上, 是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果?答案:

diachronic approach

24. 像车轮式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式? 举例说明?答案: face, neck 问题:harvest 它的意思是time of cutting, time of harvest, 现在是指yield of grain or food 是哪一种方法论得出的.

答案: diachronic approach

26.问题:huge/tiny, 这是一组反义词, 请从反义关系的角度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词,并加以理论的解释?

答案:contrary terms

27. Antonyms of this kind form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a

middle ground belong neither to one pole nor to the other as shown below: huge/very big/big/quite

big / medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny看例子: desk, table, chair, cupboard , 这些词都算在什么范畴之内, 加以理论分析?答案:这些词都属于furniture, furniture 是superordinate, desk , table ... 是furniture 的subordinate words 或者称作hyponyms ,它们之间形成的relationship is called hyponymy.

第七章: Changes in Word Meaning

1. Types of Semantic changes (五种) (1)extension又被称作generalization e.g ’manuscript’ original

meaning ’ handwriting---now ’any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer

"barn" original meaning ’ a place for storing only barely’---now ’storeroom’(2)narrowing又被称作 "deer" animal---now just ’deer’ "corn" grain---now ’maize’ only ’garage’ any safe

place---’ a place for storing cars’ (3) degradation又被称作 "boor" peasant---now a rude,

ill-mannered person "churl" peasant or free man---uncultivated or mean person "hussy" housewife---a

woman of low moral "villain" a person who worked in a villa---evil person or scoundrel(4) elevation 又被称作 "nice" ignorance---foolish---now elevated to ’delight, pleasant’ "marshal"

keeper of horses---now means ’high-ranking army officer’ "constable" keeper of horses---now

means ’policeman’(5) paper ( p140) the lip of a wound ( associated transfer) purse

for ’money’ (associated transfer ) clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations )

of Changes :1)extra linguistic factors(1) historical reason a word is retained for a name

though the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. e.g. " pen" feather in the past

---pen, ball-pens, fountains pens increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important

factors. (2) class reason elevation and degradation (3) Psychological reason The associated transfer of

meaning and euphemistic use of words Religious influence is another kind of psychological need. e.g.

"copperhead" on p.143 2) linguistic factors The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors

within the language system. Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the

meaning of the whole. The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. The

competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division.

语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English 2)technical terms3)from proper nouns to

common words

2. 问题:由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类变化模式?答案: Narrowing

3. 问题: 词义缩小有几个特例?答案:有三个特例1) From common words to proper city ---> the

City pennisular --->the Pennisular profit --->the Profit 2) shortening3) material nouns

4. 问题: 以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的: 1)lust 最早是指人的一种pleasure快乐,现在是指sexual

pleasure, 这种词义变化属于哪一种模式?答案: degradation. 2)Editorial article 缩写为editorial 这是属于

哪一种词义变化的模式?答案: Narrowing 3) the Pennisular : 专指利比利亚半岛,那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式?答案:Narrowing , 因为它是由common words 变成了proper nouns , 4) Sandwitch , 最早是指三明治这个家族, 但是现在是指一切快餐类食品,这种词义的变化属于哪一种答案：Extension 5)问题:多义词具有了不同的语义, 这种词义变化模式属于哪一类?答案：Extension 6) 问题:liquor 最早是指所有液体的通称, 现在专门指alcoholic drinking , 这种词义的变化算哪一种模式?答案：Narrowing or specialization 7) car 最早是指马拉的战车, 但是现在就是指小轿车,那么这种词义的变化算是哪一个原因造成的?答案：Extra linguistic

factor中的historical reason 8) computer 最早是指人的手工劳动的计算,后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机,现在的计算机就是指micro computer ,那么computer 词义的变化算哪一个原因造成的?答案： Extra

linguistic fator 中的historical reason , 9) 这时的computer 指代的是哪一种模式?或者是说哪一种理据的构成?答案：Etymological motivation 10)在南北战争时期, 南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊,所以把北方的人比作rattle snake ,那么南方人的 这种用词,它是哪一种原因造成的?答案：Extralinguistic factor中的psychological reason. 11) 问题:最早的纸是来自非洲的一种做纸的植物叫papyrus, 后来就用paper这个词指代所有的纸张,尽管造纸 的技术和原料变了, 但是paper 这个名词却被保留了下来, 这算词义变化的哪一种模式?答案:transfer (书140页) 12) 问题: Extention 又被称作什么,哪一种词类的变化最能说明这个原因?答案:

generalization, from proper nouns to common nouns. 13) 问题:Narrowing 最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类?答案: From common nouns to proper nouns

5. 1)A concept is universal to all men regardless of____A) culture B) race C) language D) all of the

above答案:D 2)问题: Mouth 在 the mouth of river这个习语 , 它采用了哪一种motivated ?答案:

semantically motivated 3)问题: Radiation and concatenation are different stages of development

leading to polysemy , generally , radiation 和concatenation 哪一个出现的早?答案: radiation proceeds

concatenation 4)问题:Of the most words meaning changes , which are most productive , which are

most common?答案:Extension and narrowing 5) 问题: wife 由最早是指所有的woman 变为了married

woman , 这是属于哪一种?答案：Narrowing6) 问题: Angel 由最早的messenger 变成了messenger by

god , 是哪一个词义变化模式?答案: Elevation 7) 问题: silly 它现在的词义是foolish, 它是哪一种语义的变化模式?答案: Degradation 8)问题: cukoo, 它既指布谷鸟的声音,也可以指布谷鸟, 它是哪种理据构成的词?答案:

Onomatopoeic Motivation 9)问题: Italian , 它是哪一个语系分支当中的哪一个语族? 答案: Indo-European

language family Western set Italic 10)问题: Greek 属于哪一个语系当中的哪一个小的语系当中的哪一个语族?答案: Indo-European language family Western set Hellenic 11)问题: fair and square, 这属于Idioms中的哪一个类别?答案： Phonetic manipulation 中的 Rhyme

6. 问题：What are the characteristics of antonyms?答案：有四个： 1) Semantic opposition2) A word which

ahs more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Semantic inclusion 4) Contrary

terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding

opposite.

7. 问题： "The chicken is ready to eat", 请你从语境的角度来分析？答案：This is wrong sentence, because

it has two problems : 1)Ambiguity 2)Indication of reference According to two functions of Context1)

Elimination of ambiguity2) Indication of Reference This sentence can be corrected as follows :

1)what a nice smell, the chicken is ready to eat. 2) The chicken is hungry, so the chicken needs

foods.

8. A concept has referring expressions ____.A) one B) many C)a few D) none of the above.答案：B The

grammatical meanings of a word refer to the part of the meaning of a word which indicate

grammatical concept or relationship, such as ____ . A) part of speech of a word B)Singular and

plural forms C) tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms D) All of the above.答案： D)

9. 问题：pick and choose , 它算习语中的哪一个类别？答案：reiteration （同义词叠用）

10. 问题：rain or shine ， 它算习语中的哪一类答案：Juxtaposition (反义词叠用)kith and kin alliteration ，might and main ，alliteration cooked 这是哪一种, 请从词缀的角度来加以区别cookedinflectional

affixation employer derivational affixes 名词解释：connotative meaning : is also known as

connnotation What are the differences between hymonyms and polysemyms ? face 是多义词 , ball

不是

11. 论述题： I met a write rwho is the relation of a politician. I met a newspaper reporter who is the

brother of Senator Buckley.以上这两句话哪一话好，好在哪里？注意：答这个论述题时先说哪句好，然后加以分析，最后要答上下义关系hyponymy 的名词解释。

第8章 meaning and Context

1 Context 如何进行分类两种: 1) Linguistic context，In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses,

sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a

whole chapter and even the entire book.2) Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context IN a broad

sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context,

which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. Context 这两个分类也就是它的名词解释1)Linguistic context Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and

grammatical context。Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question.

The meaning of the word is offten affected and defined by the neighbouring words. Grammatical context

In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is

what we call grammatical context.

2. 重点:简答题: What is linguistic context? 重点:The role of Context 语境的作用?三个作用: 1) Elimination

of Ambiguity ，Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy2) Indication of Referents

Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing. 3) Provision of Clues for Inferring

Wordmeaning在3) 中又包括八种线索: (1) Definition (2) Explanation (3) Example (4) Synonymy (5)

Antonymy (6) Hyponymy (7) Relevant details (8) Word structure

第九章: English Idioms

1. 名词解释: Idioms (重点) (1)Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences which are peculiar to

the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.(2)Strickly speaking, idioms

are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indiviudal elements.

(3)In forms idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions.

2. Characteristics of Idioms

semantic unity 1) idioms each consist of more than one word. 2) in the idiom words have lost their

individual identity. 3) quite often the idiom functions as one word. e.g. " till the cows come home" ,

means ’ forever as an adverb.

Structural stability ( 重点) 1) the structure of an idiom is to a large exten unchangeable. first , the

constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. e.g. " in a brown study" ( deep in thought ) " lip service"

( support only in words, not in fact ) " kick the bucket " ( die) " bury the hatcher" ( come to friendly or

peaceful terms) 2) Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed. e.g. twos and threes; tit for

tat; the lion’s share 3) Thirdly, the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added to , not even an

article. e.g. out of the question means ’ impossible’ in question ( being considered) 4) Finally , many

idioms are grammatical unanalysable, e.g. diamond cut diamond ( two parties are equally matched )

like cures like (as) sure as eggs ( quite certainly ) stepped up ( improve or enhance) in the raw ( naked )

turnn over a new leaf ( begin a new life ) draw the curtain ( end or concel )

3. Classification of Idioms The difficulty in using idioms lies first in the difficulty of grasping the

elusive and figurative meaning, of determining the syntactic functions of heart and soul

( adverbial ) Idioms may be classified into five groups: 1) Idioms Nominal in Nature 2) Idioms Adjectival

in Nature3) Idioms Verbal in Nature（五类中最重要的）

4. 注意：考试的一个要点在这， 动词性习语有哪两类划分？(1) phrasal verbs : 短语动词(2) verbal phrases : 动

词短语4) Idioms Adverbial in "in clover ’ or " in the clover " ( in rich comfort or having a

pleasant or easy life 0 5) Sentence Idioms 9.3 Use of Idioms The rhetoric characteristics of idioms

such as : stylistic features, rhetoric features and their occasional variations. 9.3.1 Stylistic Feature;

Such expressions were all colloquial and informal and once confined to a limited group of people

engaged in the same trade or activity. But they proved terse, vivid, forcible and stimulating so that

later they broke out of their bounds and gradualy gained wide a result, their early

stylistic features faded in part and many became part of the common core of the language and are

now used in different situations. 9.3.2 Rhetorical Features ( examples are very important ) 1)

phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipuation (1) Reiteration ( duplication

of synonyms ) e.g. hustle and bustle cut and carve odds and ends (2) word for word

year in year out (3) Juxtaposition ( of antonyms ) e.g. up and down hit or miss rain and shine 3.

Figures of speech (1) as dead as a doornail sleep like a log (2) Metaphor Animals are used

to refer to people, e.g. grey mare snake in the grass Inanimate things to refer to a new

broom flat tire the salt of the earth Things to refer to something else, e.g. bed of dust a wet blanket

black bottle Actions, state to refer to abstract ideas or other actions, state, etc. e.g. sit on the fence

cut the ground from under sb. fall from grace (3) Metonymy : idioms in which the name of one thing

is used for that of another associated with it. (4) Synecdoche: substituting part for the fall

into good hands earn one’s bread (5) The pot calls the cattle back (6)

Euphemism 9.3.3 Variations of Idioms 1) Replacement 2) Addition or deletion 3) Position-shifting 4)

Shortening 5) Dismembering

5. 问题：classification of idioms可分为哪几类？答案：Idioms may be classified into five groups : 1) Idioms

Nominal in Natural 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature 3) Idioms Verbal in Nature 4) Idioms Adverbial in

Nature 5) Sentence Idioms

6. 问题：Sentence idioms 如何分类:

答案： They embrace declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative terms of

complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences. 注意：习语中的特例有可能是填空内容: (Exception1) This class contains numerous prepositional phrases,

which in nature are either adjectival or adverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same

time. (Exception2 )Sentence Idioms are mainly proverbs and sayings, including colloquialisms and

catchphrases, including colloquialisms and catchphrases. (Exception3)In terms of complexity Sentence

Idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences. (Exception4) forms and

functions of idioms are not necessarily identical.

7. 问题：What are the rhetorical features of idioms?答案：1)Phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2)

Rhyme 2) Lexical manipulation (1) Reiteration (2) Repetition (3) Juxtaposition

8. 问题：Figures of speech ( 大的修饰格6个, 小的修饰格4个)答案： 1) Simile 2) Metaphor 3) Metonymy

4) Synecdoche5) Personification 6) Euphemism (1) humourous (2) ironic and sardonic in tones (3)

derogatory (4) hyperbole

9. 重点简答题: Metonymy 和Synecdoche , 这两种修饰有何区别? ( 未考过)答案：Both metonymy and

synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the

name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for

the whole and vice versa. 习语的分析：(挑出习语加以分析，它是哪一个类型, 然后加以解释) e.g. He goes

to the service , rain or shine.答：In this sentence, rain or shine, is an idiom. rain or shine is composed

in Juxtaposition. It is Idiom adverbial in nature改写后：He goes to the service, no matter what the

weather looks like , no matter what and no matter what kind of difficulties.

第十章 English Dictionaries 词典这一部分在填空或选择时出现的可能是最大的1) 词典的种类2)每一种词典的特殊性也是考试的要点：比如：CCELD它的最大特殊性是它的extra column3) 每一种词典的vocabulary stock 也是考试的要点：

1. 词典的种类There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts:

(1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries, (3)

unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries, (4) specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary is a

dictionary which is written in one language.

2. A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved.

A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the

language.

An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the

general information as in a linguistic dictionary .

An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provides encyclopedic information concerning each

headword.

An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can

supply a great quantity of basic, information about a word.

A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000.

A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer.