2024年3月13日发(作者：无线网络连接上有个感叹号)

Instructional design

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Instructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD))

is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal

of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists

broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner,

defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention"

to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by

pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning)

tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only,

teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction

may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely

hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many

are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design,

3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a field,

instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in

cognitive and behavioral psychology.

History

Much of the foundations of the field of instructional design was laid in

World War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large

numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from

field-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a

bomber—see "Training Within Industry (TWI)". Drawing on the research and

theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs

focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks,

and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was

designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect

performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given

enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime

training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and

to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. The approach

is still common in the U.S. military.

[1]

In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom published an influential

taxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what

one knows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does, physically) and

Affective (what one feels, or what attitudes one has). These taxonomies

still influence the design of instruction.

[2]

During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to

be influenced by the growth of digital computers.

In the 1970s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an

information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction.

David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory (CDT),

which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials

(presentation techniques).

[3]

Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began

to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.

[4]

Cognitive load theory and the design of

instruction

Cognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of

learners, as they interacted with instructional materials.

[5]

Sweller and

his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load, and

found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on

the performance of the learners using those materials.

[6][7][8]

While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media

on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several

journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these

cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use

of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional design

community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what

[9]

was most important: learning.

By the mid- to late-1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered

several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of

instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the

worked-example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began

to attribute learning effects to cognitive load.

[9]

Mayer and his

associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia

Learning.

[10][11][12]

In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally

accepted

[13]

and begun to revolutionize how practitioners of instructional

design view instruction. Recently, human performance experts have even

taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this

theory base as the science of instruction, with instructional designers

as the practitioners of this field.

[14]

Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller

[15]