2024年2月16日发(作者：)

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Accounting for deferred taxes under NZ IAS 12

A “balance sheet” approach

The most significant change in NZ IAS 12 from SSAP-12 is that the basis used

to account for deferred taxes follows a balance sheet approach as opposed to an

income statement approach. To calculate deferred taxes under the balance sheet

approach, we must determine an entity’s temporary differences. Temporary

differences are the differences between the carrying amount of an asset or liability in

the balance sheet and its tax base (i.e., the amount attributed to the same asset or

liability for tax purposes).

In contrast, to calculate deferred taxes under the income statement approach, we

must determine an entity’s timing differences. Timing differences arise when revenue

and expense items are recognized in the calculation of accounting profit before or

after they are included in the calculation of taxable profit.

The focus of the deferred tax calculation in the balance sheet approach is on

items that appear in the balance sheet, while for the income statement approach it is

on items that appear in the income statement. However, since the income statement is

a by-product of the balance sheet, all timing differences by definition must be a

component of temporary differences (see paragraph 17 of NZ IAS 12 which hints at

this point).

In some situations, the amount of temporary differences will equal the amount of

timing differences in a period. However, the amount of timing differences cannot be

greater than the amount of temporary differences. This is because not all asset and

liability items in the balance sheet necessarily have an effect that passes through the

income statement and which would impact on deferred taxes. For example, a

temporary difference, but not a timing difference, can arise when an asset is revalued

upwards (with the increment in value recognized in equity and not in the income

statement), but there is no equivalent adjustment made for tax purposes (see later for a

more detailed discussion of how this is accounted for under NZ IAS 12).

Therefore, the main consequence of the balance sheet approach for entities when

they adopt NZ IAS 12 is that it can capture a much wider range of items that will give

rise to the recognition of deferred taxes in the financial statements. Further, the

change to a balance sheet approach is consistent with the asset-liability orientation to

financial reporting that is advocated for by the International Accounting Standards

Board in its “Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial

Statements” and the New Zealand Institute of Chartered Accountants (formerly the

Institute of Chartered Accountants of New Zealand) in its “Statement of Concepts for

General Purpose Financial Reporting.”

Recognition of all temporary differences-no “partial” recognition

NZ IAS 12 requires a deferred tax liability to be recognized for all taxable

temporary differences. Taxable temporary differences result in taxable amounts that

impact the taxable profit of future periods when the carrying amount of an asset or

liability is recovered or settled. Further, NZ IAS 12 requires a deferred tax asset to be

recognized for all deductible temporary differences, although this is subject to certain

criteria. Deductible temporary differences result in amounts that are deductible in

determining the taxable profit of future periods when the carrying amount of an asset

or liability is recovered or settled. Therefore, while some very limited exceptions

apply, the requirement in NZ IAS 12 is that all temporary differences (taxable and

deductible) are to be recognized as deferred taxes (liability and asset, respectively) in

the financial statements.

In general, when all temporary differences are recognized as deferred tax, this is

often referred to as tax effect accounting under a “comprehensive” basis. When only

some, but not all, temporary differences are recognized as deferred tax, this is often

referred to as tax effect accounting under a “partial” basis. Using this terminology

and distinction, NZ IAS 12 can be viewed as following a comprehensive basis. On

the other hand, SSAP-12 allows entities the choice to recognize deferred taxes either

under a comprehensive basis or under a partial basis, although the preferred option is

comprehensive. As such, this provides a significant variation between the two

accounting standards because the partial basis is not allowed in NZ IAS 12.

By and large the partial basis arose out of concerns regarding the recognition of

deferred tax liabilities when tax effect accounting under the comprehensive basis was

used. These concerns centre on the issue of whether taxable temporary differences

“reverse”. There are situations where the temporary differences created under the

comprehensive basis may cause an entity to report on its balance sheet a deferred tax

liability that appears never to be settled and which may be ever growing in nature.

This can occur if an entity has high investments and/or a policy of continually

investing in depreciable assets. In such a case, the taxable temporary differences may

not reverse because new temporary differences are created and recognized that more

than offset any reversing temporary differences from a prior period. Hence, this gives

the impression that settlement of the deferred tax liability can be postponed

indefinitely. The partial basis would overcome this concern by recognizing as

deferred taxes in the financial statements only those temporary differences that are

expected to have a future cash flow effect (i.e., those that are expected to reverse).

While many New Zealand entities currently use the comprehensive basis and

recognize all timing differences as deferred tax, NZ IAS 12 will cast that net wider by

requiring all temporary differences to be recognized. The effect of this on entities will

be small if the total amount of temporary differences is similar to the total amount of

timing differences. But the effect could be substantial for entities that currently use

the partial basis under SSAP-12 and have a history of not recognizing deferred taxes

from all timing differences. These unrecognized amounts will now have to be

recognized, and for some entities, this will not be a trivial exercise. To illustrate,

consider what happened to Air New Zealand when it reported a change in its

accounting policy for income taxes from the partial basis to the comprehensive basis

for its financial year ending 2000, albeit under the requirements of SSAP-12. The

financial effect of doing so increased Air New Zealand’s deferred tax liability by

$786 million, an amount that had previously been unrecognized. It also significantly

contributed to Air New Zealand’s bottom line net loss of $600 million and

substantially increased its debt to total assets ratio from 34 to 66 percent for its 2000

financial year. Interestingly, Air New Zealand cited that its main reason for changing

to the comprehensive basis was to bring its books in line with international accounting

standard trends. More recently, Wong and Wong6 provide descriptive evidence that

deferred taxes from unrecognized timing differences from a sample of New Zealand’s

largest companies in 2002 and 2003 are not small.

NZ IAS 12’s requirement to recognize all temporary differences as deferred tax

will fuel further debate on the merits of tax effect accounting under the

comprehensive and partial bases. The resolution of this debate is far from certain,

especially given recent research findings that entities choose partial over the

comprehensive basis because it provides more accurate and relevant information

about the deferred tax figures presented in the financial statements when there are

temporary differences that are not expected to reverse.

Deferred tax assets

NZ IAS 12 and SSAP-12 both allow the recognition of deferred tax assets.

However, the recognition conditions in NZ IAS 12 differ from those in SSAP-12. In

NZ IAS 12, the recognition of a deferred tax asset depends on “the extent that it is

probable that taxable profit will be available against which the deductible temporary

difference can be utilized” (paragraph 24 of NZ IAS 12). In SSAP-12, the

recognition of a deferred tax asset depends on “the extent that there is virtual

certainty of its recovery in future periods” (paragraph 4.20 of SSAP-12). Hence, the

recognition conditions in NZ IAS 12 regarding deferred tax assets appear to be less

stringent than those in SSAP-12.

The main consequence of this change in NZ IAS 12 is that entities are likely to

recognize and report a higher incidence of deferred tax assets on their balance sheet

than what we have seen under SSAP-12. However, NZ IAS 12 also requires that

entities be conservative in their measurement of the deferred tax asset and they must

review the carrying amount at each balance date. If there is a probability that there

will no longer be sufficient taxable profits available to allow the benefit of part or the

entire deferred tax asset to be utilized, then the carrying amount of the deferred tax

asset must be reduced accordingly (paragraph 56 of NZ IAS 12). In addition, the

financial effect of recognizing a deferred tax asset (or for that matter, a deferred tax

liability) may be reduced if an entity offsets the deferred tax assets and deferred tax

liabilities that they present on the balance sheet (paragraph 74 of NZ IAS 12).

Revalued assets

An interesting issue that arises in NZ IAS 12 concerns the revaluation of assets.

In this situation, when an asset is revalued upwards in the financial statements, but

there is no similar adjustment to the tax base of the asset, this creates a taxable

temporary difference that requires the recognition of a deferred tax liability. In

comparison, no deferred tax liability would be recognized in the balance sheet for an

asset that is revalued under the income statement approach in SSAP-12. Generally,

this is because of the way in which the depreciation charge from the revalued asset is

handled in the income statement for accounting and tax purposes. While the

depreciation expense for accounting purposes is based on the revalued amount,

depreciation expense that is deducted for tax purposes must still be based on the

asset’s original cost. This means that the depreciation expense that arises from the

revaluation increment never has a tax effect (i.e., a timing difference does not arise

from that part of the depreciation expense related to the revalued asset) under

SSAP-12. Hence, the change in requirement in NZ IAS 12 could increase

significantly the amount of the deferred tax liability that is recognized on the balance

sheet because entities revalue their assets regularly.

The measurement of the deferred tax liability from the revaluation in NZ IAS 12

depends on the manner in which the carrying amount of the asset is expected to be

recovered at balance date (see paragraph 52 of NZ IAS 12, in particular example B) -

that is, whether the asset is expected to be recovered through its further use or if the

asset is expected to be recovered through its subsequent disposal. If the carrying

amount of the asset is expected to be recovered through its further use, a deferred tax

liability would be recognized by calculating the difference between the carrying

amount (i.e., the revalued amount) and the tax base of the asset. If the carrying

amount of the asset is expected to be recovered through its subsequent disposal, a

deferred tax liability would be recognized by determining the difference between the

carrying amount and the tax base of the asset, but adjusted for any amount considered

to be a capital gain (i.e., the expected proceeds from the disposal in excess of the

original cost of the asset). This adjustment is necessary because capital gains are not

taxable under current New Zealand tax legislation. Also, the deferred tax liability that

is recognized from the revaluation of the asset must be charged directly to equity

(paragraph 61 of NZ IAS 12). This is because the accounting for the revaluation itself

involves the increment in value being recognized in equity and not in the income

statement.

To illustrate these two situations, consider this example. Assume an entity owns

an asset that cost $100,000 to acquire. The carrying amount before the asset is

revalued is $60,000, while the tax base is $50,000. The asset is revalued to $120,000,

but no similar adjustment is made for tax purposes. The tax rate is 33 percent and

capital gains from the sale of assets are not taxed.

If the carrying amount of the revalued asset is expected to be recovered through

its further use, the amount of the temporary difference would be $70,000 (i.e.,

$120,000- $50,000). This figure is a taxable temporary difference because the entity

expects to recover benefits from the asset’s further use to the carrying amount of

$120,000. Hence, the deferred tax liability that is recognized from the revalued asset

would be $23,100 (i.e., $70,000 x 33 percent). If the carrying amount of the revalued

asset is expected to be recovered through its subsequent disposal, the taxable

temporary difference would again amount to $70,000 (i.e., $120,000-$50,000).

However, $20,000 of this amount is a capital gain (found by deducting the original

cost of $100,000 from the revalued amount of $120,000). This means that only

$50,000 of the $70,000 temporary difference is actually taxable. Hence, the deferred

tax liability that is recognized from the revalued asset would be $16,500 (i.e., $50,000

x 33 percent).

We can see from the above example that not only will NZ IAS 12 require entities

to recognize a deferred tax liability from an asset that is revalued upwards, but it will

also require entities to make a decision about how their assets are expected to be

recovered, as this will have a bearing on how entities measure the deferred tax

liability.

Wong, Norman. Accounting for deferred taxes under NZ IAS 12.[J] University

of Auckland Business Review, 2006:55-59

译文：

新西兰根据国际会计准则第12号递延所得税会计处理

一、一种“资产负债表”的研究方法

在新西兰会计准则最重要的变化是关于国际会计准则第12号所得税会计，尤其是在用于计算递延税项的基础上，遵循资产负债表观，而不是损益表观。要计算资产负债表观下的递延所得税，我们必须确定企业的暂时性差异。暂时性差异是指资产或负债的计税基础与其列示在会计报表上的账面价值之间的差异（例如，来自于会计与税收背离的所有差异）。

相反，在损益表观下计算递延所得税，我们必须确定企业的时间性差异。当在计算税前会计利润和纳税所得额，确认收入和支出项目时，之前或之后产生的时间不一致，就会出现时间性差异。递延所得税计算的关键点在基于资产负债表的资产负债观还是基于损益表的收入费用观。然而，由于损益表是资产负债表的副产品，所有时间性差异的定义必须是暂时性差异的组成部分（见新西兰的国际会计准则第12号第17段上的提示）。

在某些情况下，暂时性差异将等于在一段时间内的时间性差异。然而，时间性差异不可能大于暂时性差异。这是因为时间性差异立足于资产负债表当期应税利润与会计利润之间的差异，将当期的差异在资产负债表日反映出来，因此，时间性差异跨越的时间范围是一个会计年度，它是基于当期已经产生的差异而进行所得税会计处理。它可能经过损益表传达和影响递延所得税。例如，暂时性差异，但不是时间性差异，可能当资产重估会出现（随着公允价值的增加，其价值确认，在权益上而不是在损益表上）但不存在相应的税收目的而进行的调整（参看稍后更详细的讨论，新西兰国际会计准则12号所得税会计是如何核算的）。

因此，通过新西兰国际会计准则12号，对于企业实体资产负债观来说，主要影响结果是它可以更广泛的产生递延税收在财务报表中识别的项目。进一步地说，转变为采用资产负债表债务法是符合资产负债定位于财务报告的，倡导由国

际会计准则理事会在其“框架的制备及财务报表的列报”的主张和新西兰研究所(原特许会计师协会新西兰注册会计师)“通用的财务报告的质量”声明的概念。

二、所有暂时性差异确认没有“部分分摊”的认可

新西兰国际会计准则第12号规定递延所得税负债需要被确认为应纳税暂时性差异。应纳税暂时性差异，在确定未来收回资产或清偿负债期间的应纳税所得额时，将导致产生应税金额的暂时性差异。

进一步，在一定的标准下，新西兰国际会计准则第12号中确认递延的所得税资产为未来可扣除的暂时性差异。可抵扣暂时性差异，被定义为在确定未来收回资产或清偿负债期间的应纳税所得额时，将导致产生可抵扣金额的暂时性差异。因此，在一些非常有限的例外情况适用，在新西兰国际会计准则第12号的要求是，所有（应征税及可扣除的）暂时性差异是作为递延所得税的财务报表（负债和资产，分开）确认。

一般来说，当所有的暂时性差异确认为递延所得税，这是通常被称为纳税影响会计根据“全面分摊”的基础。当只有一部分，但并非所有暂时性差异确认为递延所得税，这是通常被称为纳税影响会计下一个“部分分摊”的基础。使用这个术语和区别，新西兰国际会计准则第12号可以被看作是下一个全面的基础。另一方面，会计准则第12号允许企业选择，以识别基于一个全面认识的基础或是部分递延税项的基础，尽管倡导的是全面认识的基础。如此，这提供了两个会计准则的重大差异，因为新西兰国际会计准则第12号中不允许有部分分摊的基础。

总的说来，当税收全面的基础作用下的会计被使用，基础部分的关注产生了关于确认递延税项负债。这些问题集中在是否应纳税暂时性差异“反向”的问题。在某些情况下根据全面的基础上创建的暂时性差异可能会导致一个企业在其资产负债表报告上的递延所得税负债永远不能得到解决，这可能是有史以来自然现象。如果一个企业具有高投资和/或折旧资产不断投资的政策，这会发生。在这种情况下，应纳税暂时性差异可能不会转回暂时性差异是因为新创建的，并认识到足以抵消任何来自前期扭转暂时性差异。因此，递延所得税负债的结算，这给人其可无限期推迟的印象。该部分的基础将克服在财务报表递延税款认识到这一点的关注只有那些拥有未来预期现金流的影响暂时性差异（例如，那些有望扭

转的）。

虽然许多新西兰企业目前使用的全面分摊法，承认所有时间性差异递延所得税，但是新西兰国际会计准则第12号将更宽泛地强制转换，要求所有暂时性差异予以确认。目前使用的会计实务准则第12号的部分基础，不承认有一个从所有的时间差异递延税的历史。这些无法识别的数额现在有必要认识到，一些的企业实体，这并非简单。为了说明这一点，考虑新西兰航空公司公布了其截至2000年财政收入税收改变以往的以部分分摊为基础的会计政策，采用以全面分摊基础，尽管根据会计实务准则12号要求部分分摊。这样，财政政策效果是，新西兰航空公司的递延所得税负债增加了78亿6千万美元，这一个是以前未确认的数额。这也大大促进了新西兰航空公司的盈利为60亿美元的净亏损，并大幅增加了财政年度其债务与总资产比率从2000年34%至66%。有趣的是，新西兰航空公司指出，其改变的主要原因是基于综合性的基础上，使之符合国际会计准则。最近，Wong, J. and Wong, N.提供描述性的证据表明，从新西兰最大的公司在2002年和2003年样本未确认递延所得税时间性差异并不小。

新西兰国际会计准则第12号的规定，确认为递延税项所有暂时性差异，将根据全面的和部分基础的纳税影响会计法的优点，进一步辩论。这次辩论的决议是远不能肯定的，尤其是鉴于最近的研究发现，企业超过了全面分摊的基础上选择部分分摊是因为当存在预计不会扭转的暂时性差异时，它提供更准确和相关的递延税项信息。

三、递延税项资产

新西兰国际会计准则第12号和英国的标准会计实务公告第12号，都允许确认递延所得税资产。然而，在新西兰国际会计准则第12号中其确认条件不同于英国的标准会计实务公告第12号。在新西兰国际会计准则第12号，递延所得税资产确认取决于“在某种程度上，很可能应税利润用来扣除可抵扣暂时性差异”（新西兰国际会计准则第12号24段）。在英国的标准会计实务公告第12号中有关的递延税项资产的确认依赖于“一定范围内，它实质上在以后各期恢复”（英国的标准会计实务公告第12号4.20段）。因此，在新西兰国际会计准则第12号的确认条件有关递延税项资产似乎不如在会计实务准则第12号严谨。

这个在新西兰国际会计准则第12号变化的主要后果是，企业识别和报告可

能比我们根据会计实务准则第12号出现了较高的递延税项资产在资产负债表上的发生率。然而，新西兰国际会计准则第12号还规定，在计算企业实体的递延税项资产时，他们必须不断调整各结算日的账面价值。如果有一种可能性，不再有足够的应税可获得的利润允许部分或全部可以用来分摊所得税资产的账面价值，则该递延所得税资产的账面金额必须相应扣减（新西兰国际会计准则12号第56段）。此外，在承认递延税项资产（或与此有关的递延税项负债）的财务影响可能会减少，如果一个企业抵消递延所得税资产和递延所得税负债，他们目前呈现在资产负债表上（新西兰国际会计准则第12号74段）。

四、资产重估

一个有趣的问题，在新西兰国际会计准则第12号关注产生的资产重估。在这种情况下，当财务报表上资产公允价值增加，但有没有类似的调整，该资产的计税基础，这将创建一个应税暂时性差异，需要对递延所得税负债进行确认。相比之下，根据英国会计实务准则第12号，在损益表债务法下，资产公允价值变动，不确认递延所得税负债。一般来说，这是因为资产公允价值变动产生的折旧费用出于损益表会计和纳税额的目的处理方式。会计处理下折旧费用是在评估值基础上进行的，而折旧费用的扣除是基于税收目的仍必须立足于资产的原始成本。这意味着，折旧费用，从资产增值产生从来不受税务会计影响（即时间差异并不产生于有关重估资产的折旧费用的一部分），此根据英国会计实务准则第12号。因此，新西兰在国际会计准则第12号规定的变化因为企业定期重新评估其资产，基于资产负债表债务法可能会显著增加所识别的递延的所得税负债。

作者从新西兰国际会计准则12号重估计算递延所得税负债取决于在该资产的账面金额预计将在资产负债表日恢复方式（见新西兰国际会计准则12号第52段，特别是例B）——也就是说，资产预期是否必须通过其进一步使用或收回如果该项资产预计将通过其随后收回处置。如果资产的账面金额预计将通过其进一步使用回收，递延税项负债将通过计算的账面金额（即重估金额）以及资产的计税基础的差异进行确认。如果资产的账面金额预计将通过出售其随后恢复，递延税项负债将通过确定的账面金额与该资产的计税基础的差异进行确认，但调整被认为是任何一个资本额增益（即从资产的原始成本超出预期出售收益）。这项调整是必要的，因为资本收益并不是根据当前新西兰税法纳税。此外，递延所得税

负债，是从资产重估确认必须直接计入权益（新西兰国际会计准则第12号61段）。这是因为涉及会计本身的重估增值被确认为股东权益，而未在损益表内。

为了说明这两种情况下，考虑这一例子。假定一个企业拥有成本获得 10

万美元的资产。之前重新估价该资产的账面价值是是5万美元，税收基础6万美元。资产重新估价到12万美元，但没有发现类似的调整纳税额的目的。税率为33%，并且出售资产的资本收益不征税。

如果重估资产的账面金额预计将通过其进一步使用回收，暂时性差异金额就将达到7万美元（即，12万美元- 5万美元）。这个数字是应纳税暂时性差异，因为企业预期收回该资产的进一步使用效益12万元的账面值。因此，递延所得税负债从资产重估确认将是 2.31万美元（即，7万美元×33%）。

如果重估资产的账面金额预计将通过出售随后收回，应纳税暂时性差异将再次金额至7万美元（即，12万美元-5万美元）。然而，这个费用是2万美元的资本收益（发现原始成本扣除从10万美元的重置金额12万美元）。这意味着只有7万美元中的5万美元，暂时性差异实际上是应当交税。因此，递延所得税负债从资产重估确认将是1.65万美元（即，5万美元×33%）。

我们可以看到在上面的例子中，不仅将新西兰国际会计准则第12号规定企业资产重置价值增加时确认递延所得税负债，但它也会要求企业去决定他们的资产预期恢复，这会影响企业如何计算递延所得税负债。

皇，诺曼. 新西兰根据国际会计准则第12号递延所得税会计处理.[J] 奥克兰大学商业评论, 2006:55-59