2024年1月9日发(作者：)

名

1、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际的任意的声音符号系统。

2、Linguistics Definition: The scientific and systematic study of language.

3、Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all

the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.

4、IPA国际音标: a standardized and internationally accepted phonetic system used to transcribe

speech sounds devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 and underwent several

revisions after then, the basic principle of which is to use one letter selected from one major

European language to represent one speech sound.

5、Morphemes: the most important unit of language that carries information about meaning or

function.

Design features of language:1) Arbitrariness:2) Productivity生产力:3) Duality二元性:4)

Displacement移位性:5) Cultural transmission:6) Interchangeability:

填空

1、Scope of Linguistic Study ：1) Phonetics 语音学2） Phonology音系学3） Morphology 形态学4）Syntax 句法学5） Semantics语义学6） Pragamatics 语用学

2、Some Important Distinctions in Linguistics（见课本）（简答、论述、填空）

3、Classification of phonetics：

Articulatory phonetics发音语言学：studies the sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e., how

a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds。

Auditory phonetics（听觉语言学）：looks at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e., how

the sounds are perceived by the hearer。

Acoustic phonetics（声学语言学）：tudies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,

the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another。

4、Organs of Speech：

The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the

pharyngeal cavity (the throat),咽腔 the oral cavity (the mouth)口腔 and the nasal cavity (the

nose). 鼻腔

5、Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds which uses ordinary symbols

(letter-symbols only).

Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sounds using more specific symbols

(letter-symbols together with diacritics).

6、Linguistics define the word as the smallest free form found in language.

1、a phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment音段. The speech sounds we hear and produce

during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish

meaning; some do, some don't. （When we hear the words pit, spit, tip, feel and leaf are

produced, the phones we have heard are *ph+, *p=+, *s+, *t+, *f+, *i:+, *I+, *l+ and *ł+ ）

2、a phoneme音位 is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract

unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a

certain phonetic context. （e.g./p/ in peak and speak is respectively represented by [ph]

(aspirated) and [p=] (unaspirated)./l/ in lead and battle is respectively represented by [l]

Conventionally, a phoneme is usually put in slashes / / and phones are put in square brackets

[ ].）

3、Allophones:音位变体 the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different

phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. （e. g.: [ph] (aspirated) and

[p=] (unaspirated) are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/; [th] (aspirated) and [t=]

(unaspirated) are the allophones of the same phoneme /t/; *l+ (clear) and *ł+ (dark) are the

allophones of the same phoneme /l/ ）

4、 Phonemic contrast (音位对立) and Complementary distribution (互补分布)

It can be easily observed that phonetic similar sounds might be related in two ways.

If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.

（e. g:/p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit], [rəup] and [rəub]

If they are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning, but complement

each other in distribution, i.e., they occur in different phonetic environments.

e. g:The two phones *l+ and *ł+ (the allophones) of the same phoneme /l/ are said to be in

complementary distribution.）

5、Minimal pair（最小对立体） and Minimal set (最小组合/最小序列)

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs

in the same place in the string, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.

（e. g: pill and bill; pill and till; till and kill; kill and dill; dill and gill; etc..

In this way , we can conclude that /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/ and /k/ are phonemes in then, all

these sound combinations together constitute a minimal set.

e. g: pill, bill, till, kill, dill, and gill constitute a minimal set. ）

6、Assimilation rule（同化规则）The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by

“copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

（e. g: The prefix in- in inexpensive is pronounced as [in], but in the words like illiterate and

illegal it is pronounced as [il]; and in the words impossible, import it is pronounced as [im]; and in

the words irregular and irresistible it is pronounced as [ir]. It is said the pronunciation of the

proceeding sound [n] is assimilated by the following sound in the sounds sequence and takes the

features of the sound that follows as [l] (liquid), [m] (bilabial) and [r] (liquid).）

7、简答Supra-segmental features --- stress, tone, intonation（超切分特征：重音，音/调，语调）

So far we have been dealing with the phonemes -- sound segments that distinguish meaning. But

distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic

segments.

The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments, which can distinguish

meaning, are called supra-segmental features.

These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable(音节), the word, and the

sentence. The main supra-segmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.

Stress is generally defined as syllable prominence. In other words, a syllable that is more

prominent than others in a word or phrase is said to be stressed. Depending on the context in

which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The

location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.

Tone refers to pith variations. In some languages, the same sequence of segments may have

different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches. Putonghua (Standard Chinese ) is the

most widely studied tone language.

Intonation refers to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllables,

by means of which syllables are grouped into phrases, and phrases into sentences; and sentences

into four major categories according to their different functions. English is a typical intonation

language which has four major tunes:

8、Immediate constituent analysis

The structural approach is most closely associated with American structuralism from the 1920s to

the late 1950s. The technique frequently used in the analysis of the structure of sentences was

immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis), which is a method of analyzing sentences into their

component parts.

不是翻译：结构主义语言学家意识到的另一件事就是句子并不仅仅是个线性（linear）结构，由一个一个前后相接的单词组成；它们也有一个层级（hierarchical）结构，由一层一层的词组构成。句子里的词首先构成词组。在句子The boy kicked the ball中，这些词相互之间的关系并不是同等的紧密，某些词之间的关系比其他词的更为紧密。如the和boy之间的关系比boy和kicked之间的关系要紧密得多。the boy是个词组而boy kicked不是词组。句子的这种性质，句子与构成要素之间的这种关系一般叫做结构体（construction）和成分（constituents）之间的关系。其中一个重要的概念是直接成分分析法，简称 IC分析法（IC

analysis）。

9、ENDOCENTRIC（向心结构） construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent

to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a

definable CENTRE or HEAD.

10、EXOCENTRIC（离心结构） construction is just the opposite of endocentric construction. It

refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally

equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the

group.

并列结构、从属结构缺失。

11、论述Sense and reference

Sense: It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its

features: it is abstract, de-contextualized, independent from the context. It is the aspect of

meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

Reference means what a linguistic form refer to in the real, physical world. It deals with the

relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. It is concrete,

dependent on the context

same sense, different reference, differ in sense

12、Major Sense relations

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.

The Phenomenon that one word have more than one meaning is called polysemy. 多义关系

Homonymy同形异议关系 refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings

have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

Hyponymy上下义 refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and

a more specific word.

Antonymy反义关系 is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning. When two or more lexemes

or expressions are “opposite ” in meaning, they are said to be antonyms.

成分分析法、述谓分析法没有

注意：

1、以上整理以上课老师讲的为主，旧书重点为参考。

2、内容不全面，有些东西课件上没有，都在课本上，就没打。

3、仅供参考……