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• Chapter 1: Introduction

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of

language.

2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.

3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to

language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.

4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and

standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell

people what they should and should not say).

5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language

people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)

6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in

history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)

7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical

development of language over a period of time. (06C)

8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the

members of a speech community.

9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.

（08F/09C）

linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human

languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge

of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？

11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic

communication.

12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human

communication.

13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human

language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between

meanings and sounds.(08C)

15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the

construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.

16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure,

with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.

17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from

the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)

18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while

the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is

culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).

inguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation

with society from the core of the branch.

linguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and

production, as well as language acquisition.

icative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in

social situations.

• Chapter 2: Phonology

1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in

human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the

individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)

2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned

with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)

3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view,

i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)

4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e.

how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.

5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of

sounds which the speaker issues.

或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the

physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person

to another)

6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal

cords.

7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal

cords.

8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or

sounds sequences in written form.

9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to

show sounds in written form.

10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of

sounds.

11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols

consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in

any language.

12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.

13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.

14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.

15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one

way or another.

16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with

no obstruction.

17. monophthong : the individual vowel.

18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are

produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening

positions.(08F)

19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during

linguistic communication are all phones.

20. phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s

represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)

或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two

sounds.

21. allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in

different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)

22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and

how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)

23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same

environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.

24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they

don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.

25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except for

one sound segment which occurs in the same position.

26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a

particular language.

27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a

feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is

orthographically represented.

29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the

level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone

intonation.(08F)

30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of

vibration of the vocal cords.

31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence

rather than the word in isolation, they’re collectively known as intonation.

32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.

32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the

initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.

• Chapter 3: Morphology

1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of

words and rules for word formation.

2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items,

and new words can be added to it constantly.(08C)

3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not

readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,.

4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be

divided without altering or destroying its meaning.

5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which

changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.

6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually

changes the part of speech of a word.

7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which

usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.

8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be

combined wit others. E.g. –ment.

9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.（07F）

10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem

to form a new word.

11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make

grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their

syntactic category).(08F)

12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine

how morphemes combine to form words.

13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as

a single words

14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical

modification to indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity.

(04)

tion: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative

affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.

• Chapter 4: Syntax

1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form

sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or

similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a

verb.

3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small

number of classes, called syntactic categories.

4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often

assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and

Prep.

5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or

modifies major lexical category.

6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are

called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around

which the phrase is built.

7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of

different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP,

PP, AP.)

8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.

9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top

level

are said to function as specifiers.

10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.

11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that

regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase

structure rule.

12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of

the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be

summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.

13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which

restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.

14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements

of the same type with the help of a conjunction (such as and or or. Such

phenomenon is known as coordination.)

15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is

included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)

16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are

termed complementizer.(08F/09C)

17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is

called a complement clause.

18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a

complement clause is called a complement phrase.

19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is

embedded is called matrix clause.

20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of

heads is called modifier.

21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one

position to another.

22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the

Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.

23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not

contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to

make transformation work.

24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the

XP rule in accordance with the heads’s subcategorization properties.(08F)

25. surface structure : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the

sentence which result from appropriate transformations. (05)

26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word

are called wh question.

27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its

position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This

transformation is called wh movement.

28. move α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a

cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.

补充

29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain

to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章

ural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms mes

in a language.

analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger

constituents.

gmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic

items,that is,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.

matic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which are

simultaneously present in a structure.

ate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking

up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level

of single words is reached.

ntric construction: (向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose

distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its

constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and

adjective phrases. （03）

tric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric

construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the

words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are

exocentric.

• Chapter 5: Semantics

1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.

2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that

the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the

object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.

3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and

de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested

in.

4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,

physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and

the non-linguistic world of experience.

5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.

Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional

dialects.(08C)

7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.

8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the

words they go together with.

9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(it can be

understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of the

words).(05/03)

10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having

different meanings have the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound

or spelling, or in both. (04)

11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are

homophones.

12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are

homographs.

13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and

spelling, they are complete homonyms.

14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,

more inclusive word and a more specific word.

15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the

superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of

the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.

16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.

17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.

18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often

intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and

young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)

19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one

member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or

the other.

20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship

between the two items are called relational opposites. For example,

husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.

21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one

is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is

dead.(07F)

或者 Entailment is a relation of X entails Y,then the meaning of X is

included in Y.

22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the

massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。

e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more

tea.

23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a

set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown

as [+human] [+male] [-adult].

24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to

analyze sentence meaning.(08C)

25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is

called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.

26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the

logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.

27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely

identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.

28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is

governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical

items can go with what others.

29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be

described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the

semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04)

30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the

coming action. (05)

• Chapter 6: Pragmatics

1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful

communication.

2. context: It is generally considered as constitued by the knowledge shared by

the speakers and the hearers. (05)

3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and

de-contextualized features in isolation from context.

4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a

particular utterance in a certain context with a certain purpose. (03、08C)

5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular

intention.

6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by

Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)

7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are

thus verifiable. (06F/07C)

8. performatives: Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or

describe a state, and are not verifiable.(07F)

9. locutionary act: The act of uttering words,phrases,clauses and conveying

literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and

performed in saying something. (06F)

11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the

consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.

12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to

be true.

13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.

14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of

action.

15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

16. declaration/declaratives:Bring about immediate changes by saying

something.(07F)

17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be

willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to

carry on the talk.

18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply

meaning during conversation.

19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used

to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality,

namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)

maxim of quantity: 1. Make your contribution as informative as

required (for the current purpose of exchange.)2. Do not make your contribution

more informative than is required.

maxim of quality:

1 Do not say what you believe to be false.

2 Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.（09C）？

22. The maxim of relation:Be relevant.

23. The maxim of manner:1 Avoid obscurity of expression.2 Avoid ambiguity.3

Be belief.4 Be orderly.(08F)

• Chapter 7: Language Change

1. historical linguistics: A subfield of linguistics that study language change

over a period of time.

2. coinage: A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose. (03)

3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.

4. clipping: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.

5. borrowing (load words): When different culture come into contact, words

are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called.

6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by

subtracting an affix thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called

back-formation.

7. functional shift/Conversion/ zero derivation.:Words may shift from one part

of speech to another without the addition of affixes.

8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.

9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to

exist.

10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have

developed from a common ancestral language.

ic broading(widening of meaning):when the meaning of a word

becomes broader,that word means everything it used to mean and then

more.(08C)

al borrowing: speakers of a particular language may borrow a rule

from one part of grammar and apply it generally to lesson the burdon on

memeory and reduce the number of exceptional or irregular morphemes.

• Chapter 8: Language And Society

1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and

language use in social contexts.

或者It study the relation between language and society,between the uses of

language and the social structures in which the users of language live.

2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share

the same language or a particular variety of a language. (05)(GENERAL

LINGUISTICS)

Sociolinguistists define it as a group of people who do in fact have the

opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language

with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms.

3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a

speaker or a group of speakers.

4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same

geographical region.

5. sociolect: the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class and

caused by the separation brought about by different social conditions.

6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type

of situation.

7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines

elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)

8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an

individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.(07F)

9. register theory : A theory proposed by Halliday, who believed that three

social variables determine the register, namely, field /tenor/mode of discourse.

10. field of discourse :. what’s going on: to the area of operartion of the

language activity,the purpose and subject matter of the communicatiion.

11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in

question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what

relationship they stand to each other.

12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is

concerned with how communication is carried out.

13. standard dialect: A superimposed ,socially prestigious dialect of a

language;it’s usually based on the speech and writing of educated native

speakers .

14. formality: differences in the degree of formality is determined by social

ing to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality,including

intimate, casual, consultative, formal,frozen.(06F)

15. Pidgin: a special language varity that mixes or blends languages and is

used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes.(such as

trading.)

16. Creole : when a pidgin has become the primary language and acquired as

a native language of a speech community,it’s creole.

17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each

having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation

changes.(07C)

18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of

language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.

19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of

communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or

dialects

20. code-switching: the alternation between two or more languages,language

varieties or registers in communication used by bilingual speakers.(04)

• Chapter 9: Language And Culture

1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief,

customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life

of human community.

2. discourse community : It refers to the common ways that members of some

social group use language to meet their needs.

3. acculturation : A process in which members of one culture group adopt the

belief and behaviors of another group.

4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : language filters people’s perception and the way

they categorize experience,the interdependence of language and thought is

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

5. linguistic relativity : different language offer people difference ways of

expressing the world around,they think and speak differently. (06C)

6. linguistic determinism: the language, to some extent, determines the way in

which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)

7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a

dictionary. Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every

member of the language speaking community will agree on. 可以互换

8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary

meaning,showing people’s emotions & attitudes toward what the word refers to.

Connotation is not the basic meaing of the word but some emotive or

evaluative meaings associated with the word by individual language users in their

mind.可以互换

9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.

10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are

used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be

compared.

11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid

reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g. powder room for toilet.

12. cultural overlap:The situation between two societies due to some

similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being

13. cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A

enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion.

(05/03)

14. cultural imperialism: The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all over

the world.(06C)

15. linguistics imperialism: a kind of kind of linguicism ,the promulgation of

global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. (06C)

16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their language,

some countries have adopted special language policy. It’s called linguistic

nationalism.

17. intercultural communication: It is communication between people whose

cultural perceptions and symbols are distinct enough to alter the communication

event.

18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice

of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language,

spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language

problems

18. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech

for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)

• Chapter 10: Language Acquisition

A behaviourist view of language acquisition----B.F. Skinner: Traditional

behaviourists view language as behaviour and believe that language learning is

simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.

An Innatist View of Language Acquisition-------Noam Chomsky: Noam

Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language

and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such

as walking.

An interactionist view of language acqusition:

language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human

characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.

1. language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother

tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his

community.

2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every

normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire

language. (03/08F)

3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical

competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.

4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is

characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and

simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech(CDS)，caretaker

talk.(05)

5. Critical Period Hypothesis:.LAD works successfully only when it’s

stimulated at the right time-a specific and limited time period for language

acquisiton.

(07C/ 06F/ 04)

或者 The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty

is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire

language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly。

6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.

7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual

domain of application by young children.

8. telegraphic speech: Children’s early multiword speech that contains

content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.

9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have

lexical meaning used alone.

10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show

grammatical relationships in and between sentences.

11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech

for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)

12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but

follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.

13. lexical contrast theory: (children have conventional words for

things.)children use conventional words for something else when a proper word is

available,then they contrast it with other words.

14. prototype theory: children may begin a word with a prototype and extend

its features later.(09C)

• Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition

1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one

person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.

2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language

learner.

3. second language: It’s not a native languag but widely used as a

medium of communication and used alongside another language or languages.

4. foreign language: The language is taught as a school subject but is not used

(as a medium of instruction in schools nor) as a language of communication within

a country.

5. interlanguage: A abstract system of learner’s target languge system;the

linguistic expressions learners produce especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones.

6. fossilization: In language learning (a process occurs in which) incorrect

linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a

language.

7. contrastive analysis: It compares comparable features of the native

language and target language to spot mismatches or differences to predict

learners’s difficulty.(08F)

8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: hypothesis in second language acquisition.

It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages,

the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are

differences, the learner will have difficulty.

9. positive transfer: the transfer occurs when both the native language and

target language have the same form, thus facilitating tareget language

learning.(06F)

10. negative transfer: the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native

language into a second language,thus interfereing tareget language learning.(07F)

11. error analysis: It firstly describes interlanguage independently or

objectively then a comparisin of interlanguge and target languge is followed to

locate mismatches.

12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic

interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.

13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning

of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples

are overgeneralization and cross-association.

14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new

situations, in which they are unacceptable.

15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling

and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.

16. error: unintentionally deviant from the target languge and not

self-corrigible by the learner suggest failure in competence.

17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant

forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.

mance analysis: the study of a learner’s competence in

language,based on the study of a learner’s total linguistic performance not just

errors.

erence:the differnces between native and target languages would

either lead to ppositive transfer or negative transfer is known as interference.

ge transfer: learner’s use of prior linguistic information or some

physically carryover of native language surface to a second language context.

21. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she

can learn.

22. intake: the actual share of input that has been internalized by the learner.

23. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in

second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input

language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s

present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to

emerge naturally without being taught directly.一般是问答题。

24. acquisition: (implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.):

It is a subconscious process ,similar to the way children acquire their first

language,without minute learning of grammatical rules.

25. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge

by learning the rules and talking about the rules.

26. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that

are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. (06F)

或者“i+1”.i represent learners’ current state of knowledge ,the next stage is

a i+1.

27. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, it’s believed to

be related to a learner’s general intelligence.

28. motivation: learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive,has a

strong impact on his efforts in learing a second language.

29. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign

language for external goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)

30. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language

because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)

31. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for

external purposes. (06F)

32. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for

enjoyment or pleasure from learning.( 07F)

33. learning strategies: learning strategies are learners’ conscious

goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.

34. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and

internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)

35. metacognitive strategies: the techniques in planning, monitoring and

evaluating one’s learning.(07F)

36. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners

interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.

• Chapter 12 : Language And Brain

1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language.

It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language

learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage

to the brain affects the ability to use language.

2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the

processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.

3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in

a particular hemisphere of the brain.

4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or

non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to

determine the lateralization of cognitive function.

5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an

advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear

advantage.

6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically

severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.

7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the

cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.

8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central

sulcus is called non-fluent aphasia.

9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus

results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.

10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal

lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred

to as acquired dyslexia.

11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient

seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.

12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems

unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of

spelling-to-sound rules.

13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or

words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have

fish and chips.

14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether

the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.

15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently

used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called

frequency effect.

16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string

of letter is a word or not at a certain time.

17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a

string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.

18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the

prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise

would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F/08F)

19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of

information which is already present in the data.(07F)

或者When a person hears a sentence,he perproms phontic analysis to isolate

phonemes and word boundaries,and to relate these to representaions in the

mental lexicon.

20. top-down processing: We begin interpretation of a sentence

spontaneously and automatically on the basis of whatever information is available

to us.

21. garden path sentences: an awkward sentence that misleads the syntactic

parser and takes it down the garden path to the wrong analysis.

22. syntacic parser: the system that makes use of the grammatical knowledge

but also contains speacial procedures and principles that guide the order in which

elements of a sentence are produced and the manner in which syntactic stucture is

build up.

: It refers to a unit of processing that is relatively autonomous from

other processing units.

24. Minimal attachment: we prefer attaching new items into the phrase marker

being constructed using the fewest syntactic nodes consistent with the rules of the

language. (eg. Mike kissed Lucy and her sister…)

closure: wherever possible, we prefer to attach new items to the

current constituent to reduce the burden on working memory during parsing.(E.g.:

Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday. )

model: in word comprehension,words are analysed by hearers from

beginning to end.

ional restrictions--- a restriction on the combining of words in a

sentence resulting from their meaning form part of the word-processing system

28. Hierarchical Structure----Our representation od complex words is

organized in terms of hierarchical morphological structure.

’s model of speech production:Four stages of production:

conceptualizing----- > formulating---- >articulating---- > self-monitoring.

(1) Conceptualizing: we must conceptualize what we wish to communicate.

(2) Formulating: we formulate this thought into linguistic plan in the

Formulator. It contains grammatical and phonological process and draws upon the

lexicon.

(3) articulating:the information is passed to the Articulator from Formulator

which actually produces the utterance.

(4) self-monitoring.:We monitor our speech, to assess whether it is what we

intended to say and how we intended to say it.

补充(随便看看)

．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．

1. Acculturation(同化过程） is a process in which members of one cultural

group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.

2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）; a sequence of two utterances by different

speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as

question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.

3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its

meaning in some way.

4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form

of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is

grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day.

There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.

lators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of

the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.

(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the

temporal structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect

and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)

tion(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation

of a stop consonant. E.g. /p/ in the word pit.

ant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure

of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction.

Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of

articulation.

9. converstional implicature（会话含义）: meanings that are explicable in the

light of converational maxims.

icative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language

appropriately in social situations.

11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit

within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase,

prepositional phrase and clause.

(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the

form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English

has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English

pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.

（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It

may be a sentence or part of a sentence.

class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and

does not readily accept new members.

e（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words.

bution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or

form can appear in a language.

y（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small number

of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful

units.

ment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth

of one(the second) is inferred from the truth of the other.

ism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is

used to avoid reference to certain acts or powder room for toilet.

path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender

assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the

assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret

the sentence.

variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that

either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other

never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the

unexploded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation

with the exploded(爆破)counterpart.

tion（屈折变化）: the morphological process by which affixes combine

with words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.

ment（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of

a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked

with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires that the

pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him.

ge universal (语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not all,

human lanugages.

franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among

groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example,

English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.

ociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.

ociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of

society,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is

used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.

gmatic relation: (纵组合关系) The substitutional relation between a

set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can be

substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g, b,p,s,f

are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Nature,Beauty, Love,

Honesty in the sentences:

Nature purifies the mind.

Beauty purifies the mind.

Love purifies the mind.

Honesty purifies the mind.

matic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic

elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t

are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sentence

Nature purifies the mind.

position（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to

make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been

taken”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.

ype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the

best example of a lexical category, some English speakers “cabbage”(rather

than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.

(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a

complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.

（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a

more complex form that may be another stem or a word.

（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered

inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.

ional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in

a sentence resulting from their meaning.

stic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles that

enable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without instruction

in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universal Grammar.（这

是今年复试面试时教授的问题。可惜我看书时没有注意到这个定义，所以也没有答准确。）

stive distribution(对比分布)：If the speech sounds occur in the same

phonetic context and the substitution results a contrast in meaning, we say they

are in contrastive distribution.

ate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking

up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level

of single words is reached.

ntric construction: (向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose

distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its

constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and

adjective phrases.

tric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric

construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the

words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are

exocentric.

ness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of

another person’s public self-image.

(politeness principle)tact maxim;generosity principle;approbation

maxim;modesty maxim;agreement maxim;sympathy maxim.

(反语)is the use of words to express something other than and

especially the opposite of the literal meaning of the utterance.

-switching: (语码转换) means the alternation between two or more

languages,language varieties or registers in communication.

ive filter(情感过滤)：A screen of emotion that can block language

acquisition or learning if it keeps the learners being too self-conscious or too

embarrassed to take risks during communicative exchanges.

sion（转类构词）is a change in the grammatical function of a word

without adding or removing any part of it. A word belonging to one part of speech

is extended to another part of speech. It is also called functional shift or zero

derivation.

l meaning VS grammatical meaning(词汇意义与语法意义)

The meaning of a sentence is carried by the words proper as well as by the

patterns of word order that is part of the grammatical system of a language. The

part of the sentence meaning contributed by words is called the lexical meaning

and the part of sentence meaning that depends upon the way the words are put

together is called grammatical meaning, in which the function words and the word

order play a very important role.

nguistic meaning VS non-linguistic meaning (副语言意义与非语言意义)

In human communication, apart from the linguistic meaning conveyed by

language itself,there are numerous paralinguistic meanings and non-linguistic

meanings that are perceived simultaneously by the hearer. Paralinguistic meanings

are those attached to the verbal expressions by quality of voice,tempo of

speech,posture,facial expression and gestures. Non-linguistic meanings are those

indicated by non-verbal noises such as cough, sigh, tongue-clicking, various kinds

of body languages and different contexts of situation.

tion VS connotation (外延与内涵)

Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of

the language speaking community will agree on. Connotation is not the basic

meaing of the word but some emotive or evaluative meaings associated with the

word by individual language users in their mind.

stic relativity VS linguistic determinism (语言相对论与语言决定论)

The Sapir-Wholf Hypothesis states that there is a systematic relationship

between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how

that person both understands the world and behaves in it. It boils down to two

principles: linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.

Linguistic relativity states that disctinctions encoded in one language are

unique to that langage alone, and that there is no limit to the structural diversity of

languages.

Linguistic determinism refers to the idea that the language we use determines,

to some extent, the way in which we view and think about the world around us.

This concept has two versions; strong determinism and weak determinism. The

strong version, which has few followers today, holds that language actually

determines thought, whereas that weak version, which is widely accepted today,

merely holds that language affects thought.