2023年12月31日发(作者：中国石油股票)

Cognitive Approaches to Language LearningAbstractCurrently more and more people are viewing second language

learning from cognitive perspective, But actually there are two

cognitive approaches to the teaching and learning of second

language: the cognitive code theory proposed by Carroll[3] and the

cognitive approach proposed by Anderson and Skehan ,or we can

define them as traditional (or structurist) cognitive approach and the

information-processing cognitive approach.

The two approaches have similarities in several way, First,

they both emphasize the importance of cognitive in learning, relate

language learning to the internal process within the individual while

dealing with the environmental stimulus, and investigate internal

psychological structure of the learner and how they change ,In a

word ,the investigate language learning through the cognitive

abilities of the learner's similarities and a focus on learner's

differences, and this naturally leads to the discussion of foreign

language aptitude, The contrast which accounts for the variation in

language-learning ability, when the information-processing

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cognitive researchers distinguish among the three information-

processing stages of input, Central processing, and output ,it is

striking that different components of aptitude which were identified

forty year ago (Carroll&Sapon,1959) can be linked to the three

stages .In tabular form, this can be represented as follows:

Processing Stage:

Input

Central processing

Output

Aptitude Component:

phonemic coding ability

language analytic ability

memory

Yet their different are obvious, and these stem from the

difference between a sturucturist cognitive psychology and

information-processing cognitive psychology. For Chinese teachers

the two kinds of theories are often confusing because they were

introduced into China with the sane name without distinction, and

the practice in China, but since now achievements in second

language acquisition theory have brought now concept and ideas to

language learning, it is necessary to distinguish the information

processing approach from the cognitive code approach.

Key words: Cognition; Traditional; Information-processing2

摘 要现在越来越多的人都从认知的角度学习外语，但实际上对于外语的教和学有两种理解方式：“认知探讨论”和“认识途径”。它们分别由卡罗尔和安德森提出，当然，我们也可以从传统的认知方式和信息程序定义它们，这两种方式有它们的相似点和不同点，这篇论文的写作目的就是概略地指出在语言学习中两者的不同点以及向程序角度的接收的主要转变。关键词：认知；信息过程；传统iiContentsAbstract…………………………………………………………i摘要 …………………………………………………………iiiContents…………………………………………………………ivIntroduction ……………………………………………………11. The basic principles of the two theories ……………………3 1.1 The basic principles of Traditional cognitive approach……3 1.2 The basic principles of information-processing cognitive

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approach…………………………………………………42. The rationales ………………………………………………53. Teaching processing ………………………………………84. Evaluations……………………………………………………11 4.1 The reason for traditional cognitive approach’s

durability………………………………………………11 4.2 The advantages of information-processing cognitive

approach…………………………………………………13Conclusion ……………………………………………………15Bibliography ……………………………………………………18

IntroductionNowadays, with the development of our socially, To manage a

foreign language is very important and more and more people are

learning a second language. But different learner have their own

perspective, A profound cognition will be very helpful for your

learning. There are traditional cognitive approach and information-

processing cognitive approach. Carroll proposed traditional

cognitive approach in arose when audio-lingual approach

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was attacked and challenged. The audio-lingual habit theory

"emphasizes" the primacy of auditory discrimination and oral

production habits over aspects of language use, this importance of

the autoimmunization of habit of habits and the role of repetition in

such automat "ration", while cognitive code learning theory

"according to which foreign language learning is a process of

acquiring conscious control of the pattern of a second language

largely through the study and analysis of these patterns as body of

knowledge(carroll,1966) The information-processing cognitive

approach as represented in for example, Shiffrin and Dumais

1981;Schneider,Dumais,and Shiffrin[4] 1984, Anderson 1980,1982

(see hulstijin,1990) on the other hand, was formed in 1980's and the

development in 1990s with the publication of "A cognitive

Approach to language learning" by skchan in 1988,during the last

few decades, which focuses on the importance of the influence the

meanings. Which are expressed, however, the recent achievements

in psycholinguistics and their influences on SLA have been

neglected. The aim of information-processing cognitive approach is

to investigate second language learning through the cognitive

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abilities of the learner and the processing problems that the learner

has to confront, and redress the balance of viewpoints in second

language acquisition research and language teaching pedagogy,

which the author feels has leaned too far towards linguistics and

social linguistics in recent years and has not, until recently, drawn

effectively on contemporary cognitive psychology. This article is

written to sketch out the two different accounts of language learning

and to recognize main shift towards the acceptance of processing

perspective.

basic principles of the two theories

1.1 The basic principles of Traditional cognitive approach Traditional cognitive approach was characterized by the

following viewpoints:

Second language is a body of knowledge, rules have primary

importance, and language is produced by "filling out " these rules

with lexical exponents since the priority is to construct sentences

which conform to the grammar (rule system) of the language in

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question.

Meaningful learning and meaningful practice is much

emphasized. Meaningful learning is contrasted with rote learning.

Ausubel described rote learning as the process of acquiring material

as "discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to

cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion, not

permitting the establishment of relationships" (1968: a process of

relating and anchoring new material to relevant the cognitive field

,it interacts with, and is appropriately subsumed under a more

inclusive conceptual system. The very fact that material is

subsumable, that is, relatable to stable elements in cognitive strcture,

accounts for its meaningfulness.

Teaching should be subordinated to learning. Learners are

actively responsible for their own learning, engaged in formulating

hypotheses in order to discover the rules of the target language.

Mother tongue can be used in second language learning, since

the existence of language universals can provide positive transfer

from mother tongue to second language, and mother tongue is a

useful tool for meaningful learning. New cognitive structure is

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always affected by the relevant established entities in existing

cognitive structure.

1.2 The basic principles of information-processing cognitive

approach On the other hand, information-processing cognitive approach

can be summarized with the following generalization:

Language is a cognitive skill, which develops from controlled

reaching effects on second language processing and user. But

intentional resources can be channeled to achieve pedagogic benefit.

Towards a task-based approach: transacting classroom tasks

will engage naturalistic inquisitional mechanisms, cause the

underlying inter language system to be stretched, and drive

development forward, And task-based instruction is the most

effective means currently available to deal with the tensions that

have been met by other approaches between:

-form and meaning

-rule and memory

-fluency, accuracy, and complexity.

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2. The rationales

Traditional cognitive approach was founded on the basis of

Piaget's meaningful learning theory and Chomsky's TG grammar.

Piaget described overall development as the result of children's

interaction with their environment, with a complementary

interaction between their developing perceptual cognitive capacities

and their linguistic experience. What children learn about language

is determined by what they already about the world.

Brunner's basic disciplinary structure theory is a structurist

curriculum theory .Brunner proposed that no matter what subject

we teach we should let the learner master the basic structure of the

discipline. The basic structure is the basic concepts and principles

of the discipline. they should be compiled in such a way that the

learner can understand them. In language learning, the language

course is set up as a body of knowledge.

David Ausubel[2] contends that learning takes place in the

human organism through a meaningful process of relating new

events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or

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propositions-articulated and precisely differentiated conscious

experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs,

symbols, concepts, or propositions are related to and incorporated

within a given individual's cognitive structure on a non-arbitrary

and substantive basis"

Chomsky's transformation and generative grammar is the

linguistic basis of view, language is a rule-governing system. and

human being is born with a language acquisition device and

language faculty. Language use is neither mechanic imitation nor

rote memory, but a creative process through understanding,

mastering the rules and drawing inferences.

The information-processing approach originated form

Simon'computer simulation and Neisser's information processing

theory. Computer simulation is a method to describe the

information processing of human being through computer and

computer language. Simon held that human cognitive activities

correspond to computer. While Neisser admits that computer

simulation was greatly influenced the cognitive the cognitive theory

and research, he contends that there are limitations in the sense that

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human information processing is much more complex than

computer programs. In his theory, the most important term is

constructive in nature.

The information-processing learning theory absorbed the

useful achievements from both behaviorism and traditional

cognitive theory, and in a sense, it is a combination of the two. It

admits association, but not the association between “stimulus

and response”，instead, it is the association between psychological

structure and schemata. In addition, learning also includes acquiring

new schemata. It tries to describe every concrete step of the

presumed mental operation through computer simulation, which is

much more precise than that of traditional cognitive theory. On the

other hand, it adopted the experimental attitude, which is

emphasized by the behaviorist; i.e. it not only hypothesizes the

mental processes, but also tests them through experiments.

3. Teaching Processes

Gradational cognitive approach manifests the presentation-

based method, which has been the most influential and probably

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still the commonest teaching approach when judged on a world-wide arsis. It can be summarized into 3 Ps: presentation, practice,

and production, which is presented explicitly or implicitly or

implicitly to maximize the chances that the underlying rule will be

understood and internalized. This initial stage would be followed by

practice activities, designed to automatism the newly grasped rule,

and to covert declarative to procedural knowledge. nines so much

as working through exercises, which provide ready-made meanings.

These exercises would be sufficiently straightforward so as not to

strain the fragile and developing declarative knowledge system At

the production stage the degree of control and support would

reduced, and the learner would be required to produce language

more spontaneously, based on meanings the learner hammer

himself or himself or herself would want to express.

The pedagogic application of information-processing cognitive

approach is embodied in a pedagogic model presented by Willis and

five principles proposed by Skehan[1] which guide how tasks are

chosen and used. Willis's model for task-based instruction is as

follows:

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Pre-task: Introduction to topic and task

Task cycle: Task

Planning

Report

Language focus

Analysis

Practice

The first stage is concerned with pre-task activities, and these

are of three sorts. We have activation of whatever schematic

knowledge is likely to make the task more interesting and more

authentic. There opportunities to actual language samples, so as to

provide opportunities for a focus on form to be set in motion, and

for noticing to occur. There is the need to focus attention, by using

activities which operate upon the texts and data, and which lead

learners to direct attention to the form of what is said, and to

maximize the chimes the chances that attention is focused in useful

ways.

The second stage that is proposed consists of the task cycle

itself Within this stage there are the there sub-stages of doing the

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task, which provides opportunity for language use; engaging in

planning post-task, in which the learners can draft and rehearse

their public performance, end reporting, the public performance

which itself heightens attention to form and accuracy.

Finally comes the stage of language focus where a variety of

activities can be engaged in.

These may be of a consciousness-raising nature, where further

input is provided and learners are required process this in a way

which makes pattern regularities or features more salient.

The five principles to choose and use tasks are:

Choose a range of target structures.

Choose tasks that meet the utility criterion.

Select and sequence tasks to achieve balanced goal

development.

Maximize the chances of focus in form through intentional

manipulation.

Use cycles of accountability.

4. Evaluations

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4.1 The reason for traditional cognitive approach’s

durabilityDespite that the communicative approach has been introduced

into China since 1990s, the traditional cognitive approach with its

modified up-to-date version is still prevalent in China. The reasons

for its durability are as follows: first of all, the approach has

correspondent to traditional Chinese mentality of teacher

professionalism. it places the teacher firmly in charge of

proceedings, has the potential to organize large groups of students

efficiently, and also demonstrate the power relations within the

classroom, since the teacher is the center of what is happening at all

times. Secondly, teacher training is relatively easy, because the

techniques that enable the teacher to orchestrate proceedings so

well are formulaic through generations of practice. the result is that

a conservative profession, out of touch with language acquisition

studies, has for many years simply transmitted essentially the

assume view of how teaching should be organized, and what

teaches should be like. a third reason is that it lends itself very

neatly to accountability, since it generates clear and tangible goals,

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precise syllabuses, and a comfortingly utilizable basis for the

evaluation of effectiveness. A fourth reason is that the underlying

model of grammar to be connected to the actual processing o

language, to relate competence to performance.

The drawback of the traditional cognitive approach is that it

built its principles on general human learning principles, regarding

language learning as grasping a body of language knowledge , and

neglecting the special language acquisition mechanism. White

(1998) regarded it as essentially a discredited, meaning-

impoverished methodology. it cannot explain the actual language

use, because it requires a considerable degree of on-line

computation system is bypassed, because language users are more

comfortable speaking the memorized, familiar, idiomatic language,

and are able, by drawing on a capacious memory system, to

produce a great deal of language quickly by means of reutilized

phrases.

4.2 The advantages of information-processing cognitive

approach The advantages of information-processing cognitive approach

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can be summarized as follows:

The emphasis of the syllabuses is on process, not on product

.the shift from product to process brings a series of changes in

language learning. the learner is more autonomous ,takes more

initiative and develops cognitive abilities and the potentials of

his/her own.

Language learning is based on language acquisition

mechanism that has been scientifically described. the approach

clarifies the psycholinguistic processes in language use and

language learning , the functioning of the three stages and the

interaction between them, and reviews the relevant research studies

from the second language field. It absorbs the achievements both

from the communicative approach which focuses on meaning and

from the traditional cognitive approach which focuses on form and

rule, and tries to balance the tensions between form and meaning,

rule and memory, and fluency, accuracy, and complexity.

Given the prioritization that occurs with older learners towards

meaning, the central pedagogic problem is to contrive, in the

context of convincing communication, an adequate focus on form,

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the problem, in other words, is to manipulate attention in such a

way that it does not always target the same goal (fluency, accuracy,

and complexity) but is allocated to each in turn, maximizing the

chances that balanced foreign language development will occur.

As a new approach, the information-processing cognitive also

has its difficulties. First, it emphasizes the real-time language

communication, and seldom concerns the written form where time

is not so pressed. It is doubtful whether the result is applicable to

foreign language learning where reading and writing are the major

form of communication in China. Second, the tensions are not so

easy to be balanced. the central dilemma is that although specific

structures can be brought into prominence, there is no guarantee

that they will be the structures, which will be internalized. An

intentional-based approach only maximizes the chances that form

will be sufficiently salient for progress to occur. To require focus on

particular structures would be to negate one of the central qualities

of a task-based approach. But to be unable to probe whether

specific areas of language have been attended to would seem to be a

denial of a pedagogic role. Third, the new approach is unwieldy,

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because there is no task-based syllabus and textbooks available, and

the requirement for the teacher is high. The teacher would organize,

help, and monitor the classroom activities. There is also doubt as to

whether the testing method of evaluating task-based performance is

feasible.

Conclusion The differences between the two frameworks mainly stem

from differences in Perspectives. The cognitive code framework

offers a structurist view of learning. It focuses on knowledge

components (representation) at any point of development, giving it

a static nature. the information-processing framework, on the other

hand, provides us with a developmental view of the acquisition of

skills in terms of both knowledge (mental representations) and

executive control (the processing of mental representations).To be

sure, both frameworks are intended to cover both static and

dynamic (developmental) aspects of skills, but there is a difference

in we gain more insights in language learning, it is clear

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that language use is as important as language knowledge, and the

process of language learning is more important than language

learning result, The information-processing framework seems

especially designed to account for the process of language use and

language acquisition and regards language use and language

acquisition as constrained by the operations of a limited capacity

information-processing system. But the structural model does not

address the issues of language use and language learning process. In

acquisition and teaching process, I prefer the information

processing to the cognitive model. This preference is based on the

consideration that , in contrast to the cognitive code model, it

explicitly addresses issues of representation, learning (change),and

processing performance. And there is a trend in the language

teaching field, in which people pay more and more attention to the

information-processing framework.20

Bibliography[1]. Allen, J.P.B. & S. Pit Corder. 1975. Papers in Applied

Linguistics (Vol.2).Oxford University Press.

[2].Ausubel, Daved A. 1963."Cognitive structure and the

facilitation of meaningful verbal learning". Journal of Language

Learning. Prentice Hall Regents.[3] Carroll,J.B. & S.M. Sapon. 1959. Modern Languages Aptitude

Test. New York: Psychoiogical Corporation.[4]Guo Ming-hua. 2000.”Second Language Acquisition and

Foreign Language Class”. Foreign Language Teaching and

Risearch.21